Local taxes, housing market, and territorial divide.

Summary Chapter 1 estimates the impact of the 2014 real estate transfer tax (RTD) reform on the housing market. We show that buyers and sellers moved up sale dates to before the tax increase. In the medium term, we estimate a negative effect on transaction volume. With respect to sales prices, we find only a short-run effect close to zero. Chapter 2 is an example of the indirect consequences of urban-rural inequality. It estimates the effect of containment in France due to the Covid-19 epidemic, and more specifically of the urban exodus that preceded it: prior to containment, hundreds of thousands of city dwellers moved to their second homes. Using data from cell phone geolocation, we estimate that the urban exodus led to a significant increase in hospitalizations, and that the local determinants of Covid-19 spread are population density and the share of public housing. We also find evidence that containment measures were effective in reducing the spread of the epidemic. Chapter 3 analyzes the effects of housing policies on poverty and inequality at the European level. The main results show that housing allowances are generally more effective than social housing, but also more effective in reducing poverty than inequality. The results also suggest that some countries achieve greater reductions in poverty and inequality while spending half as much on housing policies.