BADJI Ikpidi

Intra-generational inequalities are the inequalities that prevail within the same age group. Using the "Tax Income" and "Tax and Social Income" surveys conducted between 1996 and 2014, these inequalities are assessed using the Gini coefficient and the inter-decile ratio for incomes before and after the redistribution operated by the social and tax system. Age-cohort-period models are then estimated to distinguish age and generation effects. Over the life cycle, intra-generational inequality has a bell-shaped profile and reaches a maximum at age 55-59. Inequality is significantly lower among the youngest, whatever the inequality indicator used, and among the oldest, if measured with the inter-decile ratio. Comparing incomes before and after redistribution reveals that the social and fiscal system reduces inequality more particularly among the young. When measured with the Gini coefficient, intra-generational inequality increases significantly from generation to generation. When measured with the inter-decile ratio, the increase is very strong for the gross incomes of generations born from the 1970s onwards. The social and fiscal system has nevertheless compensated for this increase, since analysis of the inter-decile ratio applied to disposable income does not reveal any significant difference between generations.

This article analyses the development of inequalities across ages and generations in France using a pseudo-panel developed from the successive waves of the French Household Expenditure Survey that took place between 1979 and 2011. The standard of living of individuals, evaluated using individualized disposable income or private consumption, including housing expenditure and imputed rent, is decomposed by sex and educational attainment. The estimation of Age-Period-Cohort models reveal that men with lower education attainments who were born after 1950 experienced a significant decline in disposable income with respect to those who were born between 1918 and 1950. Conversely, when the whole population of men is considered, no decline in disposable income is observed. The evolution is rather different for women: those with lower education attainments did not experienced any decline whereas the whole population of women benefitted from a strong increase in disposable income across generations.

In a context of growing inequalities and a marked concern for the environment on the part of public decision-makers, economic actors and consumers, the adoption of more environmentally friendly food practices constitutes an ecological, economic and social challenge. Consumers have one particular lever to limit the environmental footprint of their food choices, which has not yet been fully explored: the use of seasonal foods, which limit the need for distant imports and out-of-season local production, both of which are energy-intensive. But we know little about the seasonal variations of our consumption. Are we really free of seasons, or do we still follow seasonal food rhythms? In the same way, abstaining from seasonal constraints was once the privilege of the rich: so what about today? Who wants to "eat in season"? Finally, to what extent can the use of seasonal foods be a lever for a more sustainable diet?

Introduction and purpose of the study: Legume-based products have the dual advantage of being good for human health and the environment. They are sources of plant protein that can substitute animal products that are major contributors to greenhouse gas emissions. The consumption of legumes is promoted by the FAO since 2016. In France, this consumption remains low. Our study aims to better understand the determinants of French households' purchasing decisions of legume-based products. Material and methods: The data come from Kantar Worldpanel surveys. Our sample is composed of the purchases of 5006 households in 2015. The products purchased include legumes in their raw, processed, and ingredient forms in various preparations. The purchase decision is modeled by the probability of purchase and by the quantities purchased. We applied a "double hurdle" specification that models sequential behavior on the part of households. The explanatory variables are demographic, geographic, socio-economic and anthropometric characteristics of the panelists. Results and Statistical Analysis: In the panel, 6.8% of households never purchase these products. Among buyers, the average quantity consumed is 3.63 kg/year/head. According to our estimates, the quantity purchased by the household whose panelist is in the 45-64 age group is 1.11kg/year/head higher than that in the 18-44 age group. Households residing in the South purchase 0.21kg/year/head more than those in the North. The probability of purchasing is positively associated with households in the lower median income brackets, but with lower quantities purchased. Intermediate occupations purchase lower quantities than the reference category "employees/workers". The level of education below the baccalaureate is positively associated with the quantity purchased. The quantity purchased is also positively associated with the category of household whose panelist is overweight. Furthermore, our study highlights the positive role of self-production on the probability of purchasing legumes. Conclusion: In particular, our results show the importance of socioeconomic status and generational effect in household purchase decisions, which should inform policies to promote legume consumption.

This article analyses the development of inequalities between the generations in France using a composite indicator including income and life expectancy. Mortalityadjusted disposable income has greatly increased over the generations. However, a breakdown by sex shows that this increasing trend is attributable to rapid growth in women’s income, while men’s income has stagnated for all cohorts born since 1946.

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In this paper, age (or life-cycle) and generation effects on living standards are estimated from a pseudo-panel constructed with the different editions of the Family Budget Survey between 1979 and 2011. Households' standard of living is assessed with disposable income or private consumption per consumption unit, with or without isolating housing expenses and implicit rents. Using the identification strategy developed by Deaton and Paxson (1994) for age-period-cohort (APC) models, two main results are highlighted. First, the standard of living increases sharply with age, from 25 to 64 years. For example, the consumption of 50-54 year olds is 35% higher than that of 25-29 year olds. From the age of 65, the evolution depends on the standard of living indicator considered. Moreover, the standard of living of the baby-boom generations is higher than that of the generations born before the war, but lower than or equal to that of the generations that follow them. For example, the consumption of the 1946-born cohort is 40 percent higher than that of the 1926-born cohort but 20 percent lower than that of the 1976-born cohort. Taking all cohorts born between 1901 and 1979 together, no generation was at a disadvantage relative to its elders. The discussion of these results, particularly in relation to those of other identification strategies - the age-period-cohort-detrended (APCD) method, which removes a linear trend from the variables, and an original strategy, the life expectancy-period-cohort (LEPC) method, which replaces the age variable with life expectancy at each age - highlights their robustness. It reveals the importance of economic growth in raising the standard of living of the generations and confirms that no generation has had a lower consumption than the generations that preceded it.

In this article, the effects of age (or lifecycle) and generation on the standard of living are estimated using a pseudo-panel developed from the various editions of the French Household Expenditure Survey (Budget de famille - BdF) between 1979 and 2011. The standard of living of households is calculated using the disposable income or the private consumption per consumption unit, including and excluding expenditure on housing and imputed rent. Using the identification strategy developed by Deaton and Paxson (1994) for the Age-Period-Cohort (APC) models produces two main results. Firstly, the standard of living increases significantly with age from 25 to 64 years old. For example, consumption is 35% greater for 50-54 year olds than for 25-29 year olds. From 65 years old, changes depend on the living standard indicator considered. Furthermore, the standard of living of the baby boom generations is higher than generations born before the Second World War, but lower than or equal to the generations that follow. For example, the consumption of the cohort born in 1946 is 40% higher than the cohort born in 1926, but 20% lower than the cohort born in 1976. Considering all cohorts born between 1901 and 1979, no generation has been less fortunate than its ancestors. Discussion of these results demonstrates their robustness, particularly with regard to the results of other identification strategies, including the Age-Period-Cohort-Detrended (APCD) method which removes the linear trend from variables, and an original strategy, the Life Expectancy-Period- Cohort method (LEPC) which replaces the age variable with the life expectancy at each age. It shows the significance of economic growth in increasing the standard of living of generations and confirms that no generation has consumed less than the generations preceding it.

We use the National Transfer Accounts methodology to calculate private asset income by age for the years 1979–2011. We analyze age profiles using three indicators of intergenerational equity. Monetary asset income shows no evidence of generational breaks to the benefit of the baby-boom generation. On the contrary, baby-boomers suffered from the high interest rates that they paid to become homeowners. Imputed rents show an obvious breakdown of intergenerational equity when we use an inter-age and intergenerational indicator. This indicator compares the per capita asset income at a given age with the average asset income of people aged 18–85. It gives the relative situation of one age group compared to its contemporaries and it also gives the relative situation of one generation when we compare birth cohorts over time. We find that the cohort born in 1950 benefited from a better position than their successors. Moreover, the cohorts born before the war and during the war appear to be even more favored than the baby-boomers. The cohorts born in 1930 and in 1940 have a better situation than the previous generations and a better position than the following generations.

Demographic aging in France is a major concern and is the subject of several studies from an economic point of view. Most studies highlight the negative effects of aging on the French economy, particularly on social welfare accounts and the labor market. Recently, a new literature on aging has emerged. This literature seeks to identify and show how aging can be an opportunity for the economy. This thesis is part of this literature. It seeks to answer the following question: Can aging be an opportunity for the French economy? To answer this question, the thesis explores the savings and consumption tracks, with an emphasis on the consumption part. The thesis is articulated in five chapters. Chapter 1 describes the causes of demographic aging in France and reviews studies on the effect of this phenomenon on the French economy. Chapter 2 analyzes the evolution of income, consumption and savings over the life cycle and across generations in order to understand the evolution of aggregate consumption and savings in an aging society and with generational turnover. These results also make it possible to compare the standard of living of different age groups and generations. Chapter 3 focuses on the evolution of the consumption structure according to age, generations and following a change in household income. Chapter 4 starts from the observation of the change in consumption structure over time, the difference in consumption structure between working-age households and senior citizens to estimate equivalence scales from 1979 to 2010, for senior citizens and working-age households. These scales make it possible to compare the standard of living of seniors and working-age households, taking into account economies of scale within the different households. Finally, Chapter 5 uses a general equilibrium model to quantify the effect of aging on the consumption, production and employment structure.