GIRAUD Pierre Noel

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This thesis aims to highlight the potential of information and communication technologies (ICTs), and specifically cell phones, in sub-Saharan Africa to improve household livelihoods through information dissemination, rent redistribution and financial inclusion. Africa is the least developed continent, which suffers from poverty, lack of essential infrastructure, famine problems, the highest rates of illiteracy and limited access to financial services. Furthermore, international organizations such as the World Bank believe that the expansion of cell phone adoption represents an opportunity to overcome some of these barriers through innovative uses in the rural world which suffers more from these physical barriers. Through this thesis we evaluate the impact of the use of its services via cell phone in the agricultural sector, in order to draw conclusions on their benefits and quantify them, to enlighten the public authorities, private and non-governmental organizations on their real contributions and direct them towards services adapted to the needs of the population.

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The objective of this paper is to investigate the evolution of employment in the tradable and non-tradable sectors in France over 1999-2015. We find that tradable employment makes up the minority of French employment and has decreased over this period, dropping from 27.5% to 23.6% of total employment. There has been significant restructuring within the sector: tradable services jobs now make up the majority of tradable jobs and have grown sharply, while employment has declined in the rest of the tradable sector (manufacturing, agricultural and mining industries). We also identify a large wage and labor productivity gap between tradable and non-tradable sectors. Finally, we examine the distribution of tradable jobs across French local labor markets, and how their development affects non-tradable employment locally. Using the empirical approach developed by Moretti (2010), we find that for every 100 tradable jobs created in a French employment area between 2008 and 2016, 80 additional non-tradable jobs were created within the same area. JEL Classification: F16, F66, O52, R15, R23.

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Europe: between globalization and populism, Pierre-Noël Giraud is an economist. He teaches at Mines de Paris. In 2018, he published an essay entitled "L'homme inutile. A political economy of populism," published by Odile Jacob. The peace and prosperity that should "spontaneously" result from free movement in Europe and its borders have not happened. We are witnessing a rise in populism and, on a global scale, American and Chinese capitalism are engaged in merciless competition. The European Union must adapt to the new world order or disappear. Europe promised peace, the mobility of people and the removal of the poorest. The European project was to constitute a territory with common borders, within which the mobility of goods, capital, information and people would not be hindered in any way. A territory subject to an authority receiving strong delegations of sovereignty from the former states, in order to be able to organize the territory and control the flows at its borders. Internal mobilities, accompanied by very limited trans-ferts between member states, were to stimulate economic growth and above all draw the poor countries towards the rich.

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Traditionally, industrial jobs and service jobs have been contrasted. However, the growing interpenetration of industry and services makes this distinction increasingly irrelevant. In an era of globalization, it seems relevant to distinguish between jobs exposed to international competition and those sheltered from it, which are found in both industry and services. This thesis first analyzes the evolution and characteristics of exposed and sheltered jobs in France. What are exposed and sheltered jobs? Do they differ in terms of qualifications, wages, and productivity trends? How are they distributed over the territory? It then studies the interdependencies between these two categories of jobs, by empirically evaluating the spillover effect of exposed jobs on sheltered jobs in the employment zones of metropolitan France. Finally, the study focuses on a sample of employees laid off following the closure of a production site. It attempts to determine whether the risk of redundancy, and the costs associated with it, are higher in the exposed sector than in the sheltered sector.

This thesis examines the sustainable management of non-renewable resources in general and rock phosphate in particular. The first chapter outlines the status, prospects and economic and geopolitical issues of the world phosphate market. This analysis highlights a significant long-term deficit in world supply compared to demand, encouraging phosphate producers, who have sufficient reserves, to invest in new capacities. The second chapter develops a multi-player Stackelberg model, calibrated on actual phosphate market data, and allows the calculation of the optimal capacities to be put in place by producers according to their reserve levels and development costs. The results of this model show that the market would become more concentrated in 2100 than it is today, with Morocco, the country that holds three quarters of the world's reserves, dominating. The third chapter aims to assess the spillover effects that Morocco generates from its phosphate exploitation. Using the Input-Output model, the proposed empirical analysis compares the socio-economic impacts of extraction with those of beneficiation or processing. The results of this analysis show that phosphate processing is more connected upstream with other branches of the economy and generates more value added, income and employment. The last chapter attempts to address the issue of the natural resource curse in a new way by linking agricultural performance and urbanization to the abundance of these resources. The empirical study, based on a panel of African countries, shows a significant link between the abundance of mineral resources, the underdevelopment of the agricultural sector and the urban explosion.

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Technological advances in information and communication, transportation, as well as falling formal barriers to trade enlarged the number of goods and services that can be traded internationally. This provided employment opportunities and risks. In this paper, we analyse employment growth trends across tradable and non-tradable industries in France over the period 1999-2013. We classify industries into tradable and non-tradable categories using an index of geographic concentration, since for tradable industries production tends to be geographically separated from consumption. First, we show that tradable employment is in the minority and decreased significantly as a proportion of total employment, from 30% to 26.8%. Second, we observe a shift among tradable jobs towards tertiary activities: jobs in tradable services now represent more than half of tradable employment and are rising faster than jobs in non-tradable services. Third, the fall in tradable employment was accompanied by widening wage and labor productivity gaps between tradable and non-tradable workers. Labor productivity and wages are indeed higher for tradable jobs while the structure of skills is similar in the two sectors. Lastly, we examine how tradable jobs are distributed across French employment areas (local labor markets) and how their development impact non-tradable employment locally. We observe that employment growth in tradable services mostly benefits major cities and tourist areas. In contrast, the employment decline in the rest of the tradable sector disrupts a great number of less-dense areas. Those local variations in tradable employment are crucial for the non-tradable sector which is highly dependent on local demand. According to our estimates, from 2004 to 2013, for every 100 new tradable jobs that emerged in an employment area in mainland France, 64 additional non-tradable jobs were created in the same area.

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A parcimonious long term model is proposed for a mining industry. Knowing the dynamics of the global reserve, the strategy of each production unit consists of an optimal control problem with two controls, first the flux invested into prospection and the building of new extraction facilities, second the production rate. In turn, the dynamics of the global reserve depends on the individual strategies of the producers, so the models leads to an equilibrium, which is described by low dimensional systems of partial differential equations. The dimen-sionality depends on the number of technologies that a mining producer can choose. In some cases, the systems may be reduced to a Hamilton-Jacobi equation which is degenerate at the boundary and whose right hand side may blow up at the boundary. A mathematical analysis is supplied. Then numerical simulations for models with one or two technologies are described. In particular, a numerical calibration of the model in order to fit the historical data is carried out.

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Globalization does not unify the world, it fragments it. By putting territories, rights and wages in competition, global firms create new inequalities.

Our contemporary societies are affected by major social, economic and environmental tensions. The succession of financial and ecological crises, the excesses of capitalism, the growing financialization of human activities and the globalization of inequalities require the construction of new economic reference points for thinking about the public policies of tomorrow. In this context, while past recipes have shown their limits, it seems relevant to question the role that a more social and solidarity-based economy could play. What changes and new skills could we imagine in this changing socio-economic context? How could we respond differently to needs and promote alternative forms of action to the logic of accumulation? By inviting researchers in the humanities and social sciences to consider these questions and by proposing that they reflect on new ways of understanding the world, in order to act more effectively, this book seeks to move away from the conventional and repetitive solutions often suggested by experts close to the "dominant" economic science. In the first part, it takes stimulating paths to "rethink" the economy. The questions of measuring wealth, of trust in economic relations and of the management of common goods are thus addressed. Then, concrete avenues for renewing the foundations of the social state are considered. New spaces of transformation that the social and solidarity economy seems to be able to develop are then outlined.

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This thesis contributes to the definition of a new banking risk related to the economic impacts of climate change. Climate change will impact the clients of a Corporate and Investment Bank (CIB) and will have consequences on its strategy and the composition of its business portfolio. On the other hand, uncertainties remain about the economic impacts of climate change and create a banking risk: the carbon risk. Quantifying the "Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions induced" by the activities of the bank's clients is a necessary first step in managing this new risk. After studying the different existing carbon accounting models, this thesis proposes an analysis tool based on a new form of carbon accounting that allocates GHG emissions to economic agents according to their capacity to reduce them: "issue-based accounting". This tool allows the realization of a sectoral and geographical mapping of the "GHG emissions induced" by a financing and investment portfolio (in debt and capital).

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Reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is one of the most important and urgent collective action issues facing humanity. Addressing this cross-cutting and transnational policy challenge appears to require action at multiple scales of governance: from changes in individual behavior to significant modifications in local, national, and international regulatory frameworks and decision-making processes. Adopting an interdisciplinary approach, this project draws on theories of collective action, institutional economics, and multi-level governance and expertise tools to analyze what appears to be a "polycentric" governance model capable of achieving GHG mitigation objectives. More broadly, this project asks the overarching question of what governance changes are needed to generate real and permanent GHG emission reductions in the urban passenger transport sector. GHG mitigation depends not only on the ability of actors to coordinate, but also on the information tools needed to integrate these issues into decision making at multiple levels of governance and depending on different and heterogeneous political priorities. The analysis and conclusions resulting from this research make a number of contributions to both the theoretical literature and general policy practice as well as to the specific French decision-making process in the field of transport, urban planning and climate governance.

Illegal settlement policies play a central role in local and national poverty reduction efforts. as poverty increasingly becomes an urban phenomenon. However. poverty reduction is rarely defined as a primary objective of slum policies. but is an indirect consequence of their implementation. This thesis aims to improve the understanding of the effects of slum policies on household welfare. Two case studies are discussed: the Slum Upgrading Scheme (SRB) in Mumbai, India, and the Integral Urban Projects (IUP) in Medellin, Colombia. Among others, we answer the following questions: What are the causes of post-rehabilitation residential mobility? What are the impacts of the SRB on access to credit? What are the effects of urban renewal projects on the level of housing consolidation? We use recent empirical economics methodologies to compare policy beneficiary groups with non-beneficiary groups. In the case of Mumbai, a survey was conducted by the author among 510 households in 9 slums targeted by the SRB policy. In the case of Medellin, three sources of information were used (the Quality of Life Survey, the Medellin Solidaria Survey and the SISBEN Survey) to monitor a set of beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries of the policies before and after the urban renewal operations.

In Havana and Bamako, water distribution by network is partial. It is limited either in terms of time or geographically. Socio-political regulation is exercised and contributes to the constitution of the networks. In this context, the entry of private companies in the management of the water service is presented as a solution thanks to the international financing of SAUR and AGBAR. However, private participation in the management of the former public companies also corresponds to a change in the distribution of the cost of the infrastructure. This change in the identity of the contributors can be politically destabilizing. In Bamako, it is the middle class, which had previously supported the government, that is being solicited. In Havana, the entry of private enterprise is subjecting the territory to divisions in the quality of service. In both situations, the company's profit is the priority, relegating to the background the beneficial effects of increasing the distribution of quality water. The balance of power between the privatized company and the state is different in the two countries, however. Cuban interests are well aligned with those of the private company (AGBAR), thanks to the majority state ownership of the company that manages the network and the state's ability to control a market that generates foreign exchange. On the other hand, the Malian government has not succeeded in combining the interests of the private sector (SAUR) with its own, in a context where the disparities linked to the poor management of the urban area have been accentuated by the participation of private capital.

More than one billion square meters of housing are expected to be built in Chinese cities by 2020. At the same time, the demand for energy services by Chinese households is likely to increase as living standards continue to rise. Heating already accounts for nearly 40% of residential energy consumption in China. The energy performance of buildings therefore represents a major challenge for Chinese cities in terms of energy security and the fight against climate change in the decades to come. Several regulations on the thermal performance of housing have been successively implemented in China since the 1990s. Yet, the economic and environmental consequences of their implementation have not been systematically examined from a long-term perspective. This thesis seeks to answer two fundamental questions: 1. is there an optimal trajectory for the evolution of building energy performance standards in the context of China's extremely rapid urbanization? 2. if so, what are the policy and economic instruments that can be put in place to limit the growth of energy demand and CO2 emissions in this sector in the Chinese economic and institutional context? Based on a prospective modeling exercise, we examine different strategies for controlling energy demand in buildings and their economic costs in a Chinese city by 2030. Our quantitative analysis in the first part of the thesis shows that the application of the current thermal standards in the building sector in China not only does not achieve an optimal level from the societal point of view, but would also be the most costly choice in the long run among the technical options available today. We therefore propose that thermal regulation be significantly strengthened. Several economic and political instruments are analyzed in the second part of the research. We develop three main models to accompany the learning of more efficient technologies and the transformation of the building sector: 1). Implementation of carbon financing through the integration of the Kyoto Protocol's Clean Development Mechanism in the building sector. 2). Flexibility of land use regulations in the development of the city's urban plan . 3). Creation of an economic incentive to facilitate the third-party financing of energy management actions in buildings, especially through the involvement of heating companies. In this respect, the district heating tariff reform must be completed.

The objective of this thesis is to explore the role of natural capital in the development strategies of African countries. In Part 1, we summarize what we know about the links between natural capital and development. Part 2 focuses on natural capital as a whole, at the country level. The objective is to propose a framework for sustainability analysis. Through two case studies (Madagascar and Mozambique), we conclude on the need to measure the evolution of the different capital stocks of countries. We propose different extensions of this approach, notably on the treatment of intangible capital. In part 3, we focus on the soil resource, at a finer scale. First, we propose different theoretical avenues for the economic analysis of soils. We enter into the complexity of the functioning of this particular ecosystem. Then, we analyze the social profitability of an example of investment in this "soil capital": agroecological techniques in Lake Alaotra (Madagascar). We conclude with a perspective on the place of this work in the decision-making process.

The objective of this thesis is to explore whether, given demographic dynamics and limited financial capacity, technologies available to cities in the South are capable of significantly altering the trajectories of energy consumption and CO2 emissions from urban transport. Chapter 1 summarizes what we know today about the determinants of urban transport energy consumption and recent changes in these determinants. Chapter 2 discusses possible solutions in transport and land-use policies to place cities in the South on sustainable development trajectories. These conclusions lead us to examine the interactions between the transport system and the land use system in a particular city, Bogotá (Colombia). Chapter 3 analyzes the functioning of the "transport - land use" couple at the heart of urban dynamics over time, from the founding of Bogotá to the end of the 20th century. Chapter 4 examines the effects of a transport infrastructure, the TransMilenio Bus Rapid Transit (BRT), on land and real estate markets, urban structure, and the origin-destination matrix of travel. Chapter 5 evaluates the foresight tools capable of simulating different combinations of policy levers available to urban planners and selects an existing integrated model (TRANUS), to which a module for quantifying energy consumption and CO2 emissions (Signature Energétique des Transports Urbains, SETU) is added. Chapter 6 uses TRANUS-SETU to test the ability of transport and urban planning policies to change the trajectories of energy consumption associated with urban transport in the case of Bangalore (India).

Based on an in-depth study of the case of the city of Delhi in India, this work proposes to evaluate the relevance of a widespread hypothesis according to which water and sanitation services in developing cities will necessarily be organized - in the more or less long term - as a collective networked service, centralized at the city level, and managed by a single agency, as is the case in cities in industrialized countries. Taking into account the duality that characterizes today's developing cities and that opposes a formal city that is increasingly globalized to an informal city made up of illegal neighborhoods and slums, the question that is posed here is that of the future of a collective service that the most affluent can do without thanks to decentralized technologies and from which the most disadvantaged are excluded by legal barriers linked to the status of the habitat.

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This thesis was carried out to answer the following question: can the information provided by commodity futures markets and the hedging techniques they offer be used to value an oil deposit and decide on its exploitation date? The work was therefore focused on the valuation of a barrel of oil for a distant delivery date. To achieve this, a term structure model of commodity prices was used. Several steps were successively addressed. First, traditional commodity price theories were explored in order to understand the relationship between spot and futures prices. The main models of the term structure of commodity prices were then studied. At this stage of the work, the following observation was made: while the traditional theories constitute the theoretical basis for the development of a term structure model of prices, not all the lessons of these theories have been exploited. The asymmetric behavior of the basis has implications for the dynamic behavior of the convenience yield that have not been known to date. Based on this observation, a term structure model of commodity prices, in which the convenience yield behaves asymmetrically, has been developed. This model has been compared to the two most commonly used models in the commodity field. Its performance has been tested by using a Kalman filter. The results obtained suggest that the asymmetry assumption of the convenience yield is verified, although the method of estimating the parameters of the model needs to be improved. The third part of the thesis is devoted to the study of investment projects. The contribution of term structure pricing models in this type of analysis is highlighted through a comparison with the methods traditionally used to value a deposit and decide on its exploitation date.

The purpose of this thesis is to identify what employment content studies can contribute to our understanding of the employment consequences of environmental protection policies. The principle of these studies is to calculate, for different technical or organizational options, the number of jobs created per franc spent. These estimates are generally made by technical-economic calculations and/or by using an input-output table. The first four chapters justify the method used. In particular, they respond to the objection that employment content studies are not relevant because they ignore macroeconomic feedbacks. They also show that in France, low-labor intensity options are particularly favored by firms. Proactive action by public authorities to increase the employment content of the economy is therefore all the more justified. It remains to be seen whether environmental policies, which have been introduced or are yet to be defined, increase or reduce the employment content of the economy. I discuss this question for the three main areas of environmental policy, namely air, waste and water, as well as for an emerging problem, that of polluted sites. In most cases, environmental protection policies have a positive effect on employment. However, there are some exceptions to this conclusion. The first group of exceptions consists of unambitious technical and organizational options. The second group of exceptions consists of so-called "end-of-pipe" measures designed to eliminate pollutants after their production. However, these end-of-pipe solutions can almost always be replaced, at least partially, by alternative, so-called "upstream" measures, which aim to prevent the production of pollutants. In other words, a relatively radical environmental protection policy, i.e. one that avoids the least environmentally efficient options and prefers upstream options to downstream ones where this choice exists, would increase employment.

Existing models for forecasting metal consumption, based on simple relationships between consumption of metallurgical products and macroeconomic indicators, are no longer able to provide reliable results. The saturation and segmentation of the durable goods and equipment markets, the fragmentation of the end-use markets for metals, and the intensification of competition between materials are all phenomena that have become major after the oil shocks and that simple models are unable to take into account. The functional analysis model, based on the concept of the consumption chain, makes it possible to take into account, in the analysis of market dynamics, all the determining factors in the entire metal processing and use chain.

"The oil crises of the 1970s, the fall in the price of mining and agricultural products, the significant fluctuations in the dollar and the increase in population have structurally modified the economic, political and social organization of West African countries. The creation of new agricultural activities (energy crops) is one of the solutions that can promote - the revitalization of rural areas and the settlement of populations, - changes in cultivation techniques and improved yields, - environmental protection, - the reduction of the energy bill of states. The economic evaluation of the different sectors using the "effects method" has made it possible to establish the conditions under which ethanol or methanol could be substituted for premium fuel and trans-esterified oil for diesel in Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire and Niger. ".