CHARUE DUBOC Florence

Among its many effects, the Covid-19 crisis, which is unfolding as we close this special issue, has raised fundamental questions for many companies. When many companies have been able to switch to remote forms of work, what is at stake in proximity? While the crisis has highlighted the maturity of infrastructures and tools for remote collaborative work, after the importance taken by open innovation platforms, on a global scale, we can wonder about the issues associated with the geographical anchoring and (co-)location of teams that contribute to innovation processes. In a world in which digital technology and information technology facilitate and amplify exchanges, what place is left for the physical and material dimension of location? Is it still relevant to consider territory, space, place?

This article highlights the role of internal communities of experts in supporting innovation. Based on the case of a technology company, it presents the piloted communities, composed of experts from different business lines (R&D and downstream), created by the organization to cover strategic fields of competence related to key innovation issues. This article shows precisely how these communities contribute to innovation, in particular through their role in supporting decisions at different phases of the innovation process.

Collaboration between startups and large companies is becoming increasingly necessary in the current context of open innovation, accelerating market demand and therefore the ever faster race to innovate. However, these asymmetrical partners have significant differences that can generate a distance between them, which can jeopardize the collaboration project. Beyond the dyad, other actors in the ecosystem, in particular innovation intermediaries, are also involved in the collaboration project. The objective of this thesis is to highlight the factors favoring symbiotic collaboration between startups and large companies, based on the organizational and financial independence of the actors. This thesis also aims to show the interest of using the analogy with biological symbiosis between symbionts interacting in a given ecosystem. The aim is to highlight the factors of balance in the relationship, from a win-win perspective. Starting from the differences highlighted through the cognitive distance, this research proposes to study the phenomenon of collaboration between start-ups and large companies according to an exploratory approach and a mixed method, qualitative and quantitative, based on the case study method. The study of 38 cases (which led to the collection of data from 53 respondents in the form of interviews and questionnaires) proposes a temporal, multi-perspective and holistic approach, mobilizing the theoretical framework of proximity (geographical, cognitive, social, organizational) and that of dynamic capabilities. This research resulted in four articles leading to several theoretical and managerial contributions. First, the study from the perspective of startups identified the factors that promote proximity and collaboration between startups and large companies on four levels: intra-organizational of the large company, intra-organizational of the startup, inter-organizational and ecosystemic. Further exploration highlighted the complementary skills of startup founding teams, compared to solo startupers, and which is a source of proximity with large companies. The next part of the study, from the perspective of large companies, highlighted the importance of management based on collective intelligence as well as the changing role of middle managers in large companies in the implementation of an open innovation strategy integrating a variety of actors, such as startups. Finally, the study of the perspective of innovation intermediaries regarding their roles in the development of the startup-large company collaboration has made it possible to bring out these different roles according to three phases of the construction of the collaboration, including that of constituting an external resource for the large company for the regeneration of its dynamic capacities. A transversal contribution is also the identification and operationalization of the 2+1 phases of the collaboration following a chronological axis: the Upstream, Design and Process phases of the collaboration.

The socio-technical niche is a privileged space for developing innovations that are favorable to the ecological transition. The objective of this research is to better understand and characterize its modes of emergence and diffusion. We use the case of a household waste treatment syndicate that conducts a policy of innovation and multiple cooperations in its administrative territory, in order to valorize waste through new recycling channels. We see how a niche emerges from this territorial anchorage, and how the expertise built up by a "driving force" consolidates the niche and increases its attractiveness to external actors.

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The concept of Business Model Innovation (BMI) has become more and more influential in strategic management research over the last fifteen years and introduces the additional notion of innovation to Business Model (BM). BM is defined as “the design or architecture of the value creation, delivery and capture mechanisms” of a firm. It hereby raises a number of crucial theoretical and empirical questions: what are the drivers and facilitators of BMI? Whereas drivers of BMI remains in current investigation within academic research, organizational practices such as Corporate Entrepreneurship (CE) as increasingly been recognized as a legitimate path to level organizational performance. Indeed more and more companies rely on CE practices to remedy the shortcomings in their existing innovation processes. The aim of this paper is to investigate under which conditions do CE practices foster BMI in an established firm. Based on the CE and BMI literatures, we analyze the empirical case of a French airline Constellation using a qualitative single embedded case study design. The case of Constellation is an interesting example to use because the airline started to encourage practices such like CE to foster BMI. We highlighted several tensions conditions under which BMI is enabled thanks to CE practices with a specific focus on the conflicts between the revenue streams of the existing firm and the BMI ones.

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A controversy exists in the literature regarding the type of suppliers to consider when leveraging external knowledge for exploring discontinuous innovation (DI): familiar suppliers or distant ones. We argue that firms pursuing DI should establish relationships with distant suppliers along cognitive and relational dimensions and that this requires a specific process. Based on a longitudinal study of a firm that developed such relationships and succeeded in exploring DI, we find that firms can develop such relationships through an approach with three main characteristics: 1) a documented mapping coupling identified DI concepts and their underlying technologies with potential suppliers who master and can provide such technologies. 2) a structured and transparent process supporting mutual and progressive commitment. 3) a specific dedicated entity, separate from the rest of the firm, but at the same time connected to the experts who master the internal knowledge to be combined with the leveraged external knowledge as well as the top managers who will make the decisions regarding further development of the explored opportunities for DI. Simultaneous cooperation with both distant and familiar suppliers enables firms to achieve ambidextrous sourcing and pursue both incremental innovation and DI.

In this article, we first present a brief overview of the historical evolution of global innovation in multinational firms. We then outline four components and challenges facing firms that are evolving towards global innovation. Next, we focus on the beginning and end phases of the innovation process: their inception and their diffusion. We show that the stakes related to inception tend to sustain internationalization but induce ever more complex innovation diffusion. In the conclusion, we present open issues and questions that merit further attention and research by the academic community working at the intersection of innovation management and international management.

Co-exploring concepts with distant suppliers, on cognitive and relational levels, favors the identification of discontinuous innovations. However, few studies focus on the ways in which these relationships are constructed. Based on a longitudinal study of a company that co-explored discontinuous innovations with remote suppliers, we inductively highlight two characteristics of the process and organization adopted to build these relationships. We highlight the transparency of the co-exploration process that supports a progressive mutual commitment. This process is carried out by a dedicated actor, who has access to both the technical experts and to the company's leaders who make strategic decisions on innovation and development areas. This actor is thus one of the vectors of the company's organizational ambidexterity, since it allows the development of these relationships in parallel with long-term relationships with privileged partners.

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The strengthening of the role of subsidiaries in the innovation strategy of the Multinational Firm (MNF) is underlined by different works. We propose four differentiated ideal types of subsidiaries' contributions to this strategy based on an analytical framework that extends that of Bartlett and Ghoshal (1989) and on the case study of an emblematic MNF. In addition to the "large incumbents" and the "implementers", two new types are highlighted: the "gas pedals" and the "high potentials" who develop innovations that can be deployed in the rest of the MNF. The type of innovations that each type of subsidiary would be most likely to develop is also specified.

In innovation management, a key issue consists in coupling the creation of technological knowledge and the exploration of use values. This article characterizes original coupling modalities that rely on new activities - distinct from research and development - and that combine different coupling levers considered in a scattered manner in the literature. The analysis is based on the case of a company in the information and communication technologies sector, which has undertaken an in-depth reorganization of its innovation processes in the current context of intense competition and the digital revolution.

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Concurrently with the digital generalization, new physical workspaces, like co-working spaces, increase and raise worldwide enthusiasm. In this paper, we will study three Parisian co-working spaces through a small service company which has successively located in these workspaces. We will show that co-working spaces are a new type of open innovation intermediaries facilitating multi-actor interaction dynamics, contributing to the development of inter-organizational collaborations, promoting multiple contacts, framing the interactions between potential partners, and having an autonomous business model. We will specify four spatially anchored intermediation components which can led to new offers.

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Concurrently with the digital generalization, new physical workspaces, like coworking spaces, increase and raise worldwide enthusiasm. In this paper, we will study three Parisian coworking spaces through a small service company which has successively located in these workspaces. We will show that coworking spaces are a new type of open innovation intermediaries facilitating multi-actor interaction dynamics, contributing to the development of inter-organizational collaborations, promoting multiple contacts, framing the interactions between potential partners, and having an autonomous business model. We will specify four spatially anchored intermediation components which can led to new offers.

The current excitement around emotional phenomena urges companies to offer products that arouse emotions rather than just satisfy consumer needs. Pursuing the objective of developing products with a strong emotional component raises the question of how to take into account the emotions generated by the product during its design process. In this article, the authors analyze this question in the context of the automobile as an emotional product with a high degree of complexity.

A discrepancy exists in the literature regarding the type of suppliers to consider when targeting discontinuous innovation (DI). Some authors suggest that DI require leveraging knowledge from a selection of familiar and trustful suppliers, whereas others claim that DI requires leveraging distant knowledge from new suppliers. We argue that establishing relationships with a new supplier mastering knowledge distant from the firm’s one, requires a specific process. Based on a longitudinal study in a firm that developed such relationships and succeeded in enhancing DI, we underline three characteristics of the approach adopted: (i) proposing an open enough formulation to give the suppliers the opportunity to value their competencies but well documented, (ii) having a structured and transparent process, supporting a mutual progressive commitment and (iii) dedicating a specific entity with access to the top management and technical specialists, with a global vision of the questions to be tackled.

A crucial issue in the management of technological innovation is that of coupling the exploration of the value associated with an innovation with the development of the scientific and technical knowledge necessary for the design of new objects, services or technological systems. Numerous studies have focused on this question, characterizing the principles of coupling or more concrete modalities. A great diversity of approaches and devices has been put forward by the literature, constituting answers that are often partial, due to the frequent focus on one type of coupling modalities, and sometimes contradictory as to the way to organize such a coupling. In the current context of competition through innovation, can we detect in the empirical practices of technology companies changes in relation to the coupling modalities already highlighted in the literature, combinations between several modalities, often analyzed in isolation, or the deployment of new approaches? How do these coupling mechanisms rely on individual and collective dynamics of competences? This is the project pursued in this work, which studies the case of a company in the communication technologies sector. This company has recently been experimenting with original and combinatorial modalities in response to this coupling issue, which is particularly critical in a highly evolving competitive environment.

In this article, we first present a brief over-view of the historical evolution of global innovation in multinational firms. We then outline four components and challenges facing firms that are evolving towards global innovation. Next, we focus on the beginning and end phases of the innovation process: their inception and their diffusion. We show that the stakes related to inception tend to sustain internationalization but induce ever more complex innovation diffusion. In the conclusion, we present open issues and questions that merit further attention and research by the academic community working at the intersection of innovation management and international management. (English).

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The contemporary combination of the imperatives of innovation and globalization is creating new problems for firms: how to identify and develop innovation when the sources of innovation are varied and dispersed? How can these innovations be deployed on the different markets? What roles do central services and subsidiaries play in this deployment? This book explores these questions by analyzing the current strategies and practices of French multinationals in various sectors: Air Liquide, Essilor, Orange, Sanofi, Renault, Ubisoft, Valeo, etc. It characterizes the problems they face in the development of innovation. It characterizes the problems they face and analyzes the concrete responses they provide. By putting these practices into perspective with the teachings of international management and innovation research, this book provides keys to understanding and acting on them for all those who experience these situations or are preparing for them in their business school or engineering curriculum. [Source: from the back cover].

The article deals with the evolution of routines in organizations confronted with the coexistence of institutional logics. The case studied [1] is that of tele-assistance companies for the frail elderly, which articulate in their activity a logic of medical care and a logic of social care. The authors show that the ambiguity and uncertainty of the situations to be managed are at the origin of tensions in the activity, and generate a dynamic of routines. These tensions are linked to the coexistence of logics. Some of the new routines constructed hybridize the logics, others appear and are linked to a less specific logic, that of social care.

A discrepancy exists in the literature regarding the type of suppliers to consider when targeting discontinuous innovation (DI). Some authors suggest that DI require leveraging knowledge from a selection of familiar and trustful suppliers, whereas others claim that DI requires leveraging distant knowledge from new suppliers. We argue that establishing relationships with a new supplier mastering knowledge distant from the firm’s one, requires a specific process. Based on a longitudinal study in a firm that developed such relationships and succeeded in enhancing DI, we underline three characteristics of the approach adopted: (i) proposing an open enough formulation to give the suppliers the opportunity to value their competencies but well documented, (ii) having a structured and transparent process, supporting a mutual progressive commitment and (iii) dedicating a specific entity with access to the top management and technical specialists, with a global vision of the questions to be tackled.

The subsidiaries of a multinational company must reconcile local adaptation and global integration. To analyze this, we propose the notion of inter-subsidiary innovation deployment, which we define as the sequence of commercializations of an innovation by subsidiaries located in differentiated local contexts, and thus requiring its adaptation each time. Based on a longitudinal analysis of five innovation deployments in a multinational company, we highlight four critical factors that we link to knowledge construction and sharing mechanisms. We thus discuss Tallmann and Chacar's (2011) theoretical model of knowledge transfer and specify the conditions for its implementation.

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Based on the case study of "La Ruche", a collective work space for social entrepreneurs in Paris (France), we will propose an original model of entrepreneurial support based on collective learning. Contrary to the traditional coaching approach in which the coach has a prescriptive role, here the coach disappears in favor of the collective formed by the entrepreneurs. The operating conditions of this system are based on selection, articulating a tension between the diversity of projects and the sharing of common values, the interactional dynamics supported by the programming of events, and the role of the physical work environment.

Based on the case study of "La Ruche", a collective work space for social entrepreneurs in Paris (France), we will propose an original model of entrepreneurial support based on collective learning. Contrary to the traditional coaching approach in which the coach has a prescriptive role, here the coach disappears in favor of the collective formed by the entrepreneurs. The operating conditions of this system are based on selection, articulating a tension between the diversity of projects and the sharing of common values, the interactional dynamics supported by the programming of events, and the role of the physical work environment.

Bringing together a literature on the theme of industry emergence and that of partnerships makes it possible to account for a situation of reconfiguration of markets and potentially of industries initiated by an industry leader augmented by the weight of a set of partnerships. The thesis has clarified the idea of a context of convergence, extended the concept of "exploration partnership", underlined the role of people and their creative capacities, formalized types of networks with distinct functions with a new type of actor, distinguished the concept of platform leadership from that of industry architecture leadership that we have introduced. The work of the thesis has also allowed us to highlight the key role of the architecture leader in this reconfiguration process and shows how "the relationship" can also be a vector likely to generate an intangible asset of primary importance.

The software design process is marked by the modularity of product architectures, which favors the design of innovations by users. However, radical software innovation is carried out by small structures focused on their own technology. These innovative software products must generally be combined with others to achieve marketable solutions. The literature on modularity (Baldwin and Clark, 2000) does not talk about the process that leads to the emergence of a dominant modular design, and is only interested in the processes of de-integration of product architecture. It therefore does not deal with the innovation process, based on independent software designed by different firms, which leads to a multi-actor modular solution. Questions then arise about the innovation process that leads to such a solution. How does the new architecture emerge? How is the innovation process structured? What is the role of the first customers in this radical multi-actor innovation process, and how can they be associated with it? We propose a typology and new terminologies related to the product architecture of a multi-actor software innovation and its different components. We describe the evolution of this architecture up to a stage where its modularization is almost complete, and explain the reasons for this incompleteness. We then analyze the innovation process through the inter-organizational collaborations implemented, and the interactions they generate. We thus observe the emergence of a project structuring. This consists of a definition of project management and a definition of the role and competences of its various actors. Finally, we return to the nature of the contributions of the first clients to the innovation process, and discuss the notion of lead user. We propose to enrich this notion through the definition of four new concepts, which take into account the multiplicity of the contributions of these customers to the process of radical multi-actor software innovation.

For a long time, technical progress was associated with economic progress. However, in recent years, it has become apparent that the efficiency of production systems also depends on the adequacy of organizational models to new technical constraints. We are interested in a particular technical breakthrough: the robotization of automotive sheet metal units. Formalizing an industrial mutation implies a theory of organizational change. We have chosen an interactionist approach to organizational change, as the evolutions take place in a context of incomplete knowledge and imperfect information. We will apply the notion of organizational learning to the case under study and explore this concept further. The thesis is based, on the one hand, on an intervention research in a sheet metal factory and, on the other hand, on a comparison of the evolutions of five other French sheet metal factories recently robotized. Several aspects are examined: the evolution of technical systems, structures, skills, instrumentation and performances. The results obtained in the thesis can be articulated in three main points: the perspective of the learning theories presented in the literature, the characterization of a learning process, the construction of three ideal-types of learning. In order to clarify the existing definitions of learning, we insist on the notion of learning perimeter which allows us to identify the actors involved in the construction and memorization of new knowledge. We also emphasize the organizational dimension of evaluation, which often relies on management instruments that have already been established. Our analysis grid of the learning processes includes three dimensions: organizational deployment, spatial dimension, and temporal dimension, each of them gathering different variables specified in the thesis. From the comparison of the itineraries of different units that have experienced the same technological leap, we identify three ideal types of learning. We evaluate these three types of learning from the results of the sheet metal works whose dynamics are similar to a pure type. The conditions under which each of the types is adapted will be emphasized.