FAYOLLE Alain

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In view of the resources committed and the high expectations of its various stakeholders, entrepreneurship education (EE) is evaluated on its ability to produce the expected impacts on students. However, these impacts remain difficult to grasp because they are multidimensional, diffuse and delayed in time. This doctoral work is part of a research project that focuses on understanding the impacts of EE to improve its effectiveness in higher education. In addition to previous research on the objectives ('why', 'for what results'), the contents ('what'), the methods ('how') and the privileged targets of EE ('for whom'), our study adds three other dimensions to be taken into account in order to evaluate the impact of an EE device and its effectiveness as perceived by the different stakeholders of the entrepreneurial ecosystem: 'where', 'by whom' and 'in which temporal dynamics'. Our article-based thesis has theoretical and managerial applications for Management Sciences concerning i/ teamwork, ii/ the links between educational and business environments and entrepreneurial learning, iii/ the professional development of entrepreneurship teachers and iv/ the design of frameworks for evaluating the impact of EE schemes and their effectiveness. Indeed, the results of our five articles related to the eight constituent dimensions of EE identified contribute to the development of an integrative model for evaluating the impact of EE. This model allows us to support the systematic and effective design, management and evaluation of existing or new EA systems in all the dimensions considered relevant by all stakeholders.

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Few researchers have examined empirically the dynamics of human–non-human networking and its importance for strategic outcomes, particularly in the field of entrepreneurship. In this paper, we use Actor-Network Theory to observe and investigate the role of materially heterogeneous entities in the entrepreneurial network. Building on the results of a four-year, multi-case study, this paper describes how an entrepreneurial network, beyond its social nature, is also a socio-material constellation. The symmetric treatment of human and non-human actors enables us to move away from the figure of the heroic entrepreneur. Our findings reveal various roles that the heterogeneity of actor-networks can play in the entrepreneurial process. We see on the one hand their power to attract and recruit new allies when they are aligned with the entrepreneur's vision, and on the other their ability to repel and block the new venture creation process when they fail to effectively translate what the entrepreneur has in mind.

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Scholars have long studied small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) and recognize the need for SMEs to postulate strategies to compete and succeed in the global market. In the current ultra-competitive business environment, SMEs face several internal and external challenges. In this introduction to the special issue (SI), we review the theoretical models and frameworks in this stream of research and outline some research questions that could be potentially used in future research in this era of globalization. The six papers selected for inclusion in this SI analyze this field from different angles, offering interesting overviews on the present situation of research in the field, as well as relevant new findings and perspectives for future research.

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This edited volume aims to bridge persistent research and practitioner gaps in entrepreneurship education theory and practice, as well as its relationship to main stakeholders. In 16 focused chapters, authored by leading international authorities in this topic, it offers new and innovative conceptual frameworks, research directions and illustrative case studies.

Among the questions that persist about entrepreneurial opportunity (Shane, 2012 . Venkataraman et al., 2012 . Alvarez et al., 2013), some concern the entrepreneur's cognitive style (Cardon et al., 2009) and decision process (Sarasvathy, 2001). Opportunity identification is often associated with an analytical cognitive style even though an individual may otherwise be guided by intuition and an effectual decision-making process in order to construct an opportunity. With a qualitative study of nine companies, we investigate the possible link between the opportunity formation process (identification or construction), the entrepreneur's cognitive style (intuitive or analytical) and the decision process implemented (causal or effectual). Our results show that the relationship is not systematic and that the industry and the position of the firm in the sector of activity are determining factors.

This article introduces various aspects of technology business incubators (TBIs), emphasizing their increasing role in the spatial context where they are used as platforms and drivers of regional entrepreneurial ecosystems. It outlines the key themes of the emerging role of TBIs in sustainable regional development: TBI biodiversity of ecosystems. accelerating startups in the entrepreneurial university. TBI mechanisms challenged by green technology to sustain regional development. and TBIs’ connecting role between entrepreneurship education, experiential knowledge, and regional development. It proposes an agenda for future research on the role of TBIs as bridging mechanisms and drivers of entrepreneurship and regional development.

Necessity/opportunity entrepreneurship has important scientific and practical implications, particularly in developing countries. This thesis investigates the motivational processes of necessity/opportunity entrepreneurs.The research aims to understand over time, the necessity/opportunity motivations of entrepreneurs during the start-up process. The analysis of content and process research on necessity/opportunity motivations highlights the value of adopting a processual perspective in studying the phenomenon. The empirical study is therefore based on an interpretative perspective and uses a longitudinal qualitative methodology. Eight entrepreneurs in Burkina Faso were followed through in-depth interviews over a 15-month period. The results first indicate that GEM-type measurement tools do not always adequately capture the phenomenon of necessity/opportunity motivations. They then show that during the start-up process, motivational phases of necessity/mixity/opportunity transition to phases of a different nature. Finally, they suggest that motivational transitions are underpinned by the appearance/disappearance of reasons relating to the environment, the individual, the results and the actions. These results call for a nuance in the dichotomy between the two types of entrepreneurship, as this dichotomy appears to be unstable for the entrepreneurs studied. They also call into question public support policies that exclude entrepreneurs out of necessity and suggest that flexible forms of support be provided so that they can adapt to the needs of entrepreneurs over time.

Since 2014, the European Commission has been encouraging the regions of its member states to establish a new type of territorial development strategy that should encourage them to specialize in areas that are rooted in their territory in order to create original competitive advantages that are difficult to imitate: the "Research and Innovation Strategies for Intelligent Specialization" (RIS3). Since 2014, the RIS3 are also a condition for obtaining ERDF funds used to finance the development of these regions. But the main originality of the RIS3 lies in the fact that these processes of selection and prioritization of specializations, which are established at the global scale of regions according to a classic decision-making dynamic that goes "from the top down", must now be based on processes of identification of areas with high potential that must be conducted "from the bottom up" via a process of Entrepreneurial Discovery (ED) that should allow a maximum of "Regional Entrepreneurs" (RE) (of all sizes, statuses or sectors) to participate in the definition of the directions of their territory. However, there is a certain lack of methodological recommendations to concretely instrument these processes within the realities of each regional innovation system. This thesis therefore presents two software prototypes that we have developed to instrument these two-way mechanisms within the innovation system of New Aquitaine: (1) "WeKeyInnovation," a collaborative platform that should allow all BRs to share useful information for innovation, but also to lay the foundations of a real dynamic observatory to help the regional public authorities identify in real time the practices, needs and high-potential initiatives emanating from the actors in the field who evolve in the territory. (2) "DialoJ", an online matching tool based on the resolution of dialogical questions prior to events in order to help REs who intend to participate in them to clarify their expectations and to better visualize those of the other actors in order to facilitate the identification and matching processes with more adequate potential business partners as a preliminary step to any collaborative business approach.

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The institutionalization of entrepreneurship is undeniably a good thing for the members of the research community, as it implies the legitimization of particular research topics and research practices. the emergence of norms for developing and publishing this research. and the creation of structures that provide employment opportunities and a conducive environment for pursuing research. However, we can also question if this institutionalization is such a good thing when it comes to producing critical, innovative, contextualized, and complex research or when considered from the point of view of non-academic entrepreneurship stakeholders and society in general. The objective of this bookis to challenge the main research streams, theories, methods, epistemologies, assumptions and beliefs dominating the field of entrepreneurship. In order to achieve this objective, this book comprises six conceptual and empirical contributions, each one unorthodox, controversial, inspiring and challenging. This book was originally published as a special issue of Entrepreneurship and Regional Development.

This article assesses the performance of a technology business incubator program, established by the French government to support innovative new science and technology-based firms (NSTBF) that seek to commercialize laboratory research results. With a resource-based view and an institutional approach, this study predicts why some incubators may be more successful than others in supporting the development of NSTBF. An original longitudinal data set represents the results of a public incubator program, funded following the passage of a 1999 French law on innovation and research. The findings refer to a sample of 25 operationally active incubators and their 1200 graduated new ventures. This study contributes to the literature on business incubation by showing the importance of various incubator resource inputs for aiding NSTBF projects. It thus provides useful and timely feedback for researchers and policy makers.

Among the questions that persist about entrepreneurial opportunity (Shane, 2012 . Venkataraman et al., 2012 . Alvarez et al., 2013), some concern the entrepreneur's cognitive style (Cardon et al., 2009) and decision process (Sarasvathy, 2001). Opportunity identification is often associated with an analytical cognitive style even though an individual may otherwise be guided by intuition and an effectual decision-making process in order to construct an opportunity. With a qualitative study of nine companies, we investigate the possible link between the opportunity formation process (identification or construction), the entrepreneur's cognitive style (intuitive or analytical) and the decision process implemented (causal or effectual). Our results show that the relationship is not systematic and that the industry and the position of the firm in the sector of activity are determining factors.

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This paper is the first in a JSBM special issue on entrepreneurship in family firms, i.e., the firm-level entrepreneurial activities and attitudes that occur when a family is considerably involved in an established organization. We provide a systematic literature review of 109 articles written on this growing issue, based on a framework that highlights the antecedents, outcomes, and processes of entrepreneurship in family firms. We also offer a brief overview of the contributions of each of the papers in this issue and conclude by outlining a research agenda for future activities in this area of inquiry.

This article is presenting an overview of the literature devoted to entrepreneurial learning and, more specifically, those research bringing environmental elements into the study of the entrepreneurial learning process. Then, it shows how each of the four Special Issue selected research papers contribute to enhancing our knowledge of the complexity of the learning process vis-à-vis entrepreneurial processes placed in context. By doing this, it makes an attempt to explain the specific context behind each contribution as well as presenting the wider context. Finally, the article is suggesting a set of key challenges and research pathways that might be explored in the future.

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Using a teaching model framework, we systematically review empirical evidence on the impact of entrepreneurship education (EE) in higher education on a range of learning outcomes, analysing 159 published articles from 2004-2016. The teaching model framework allows us for the first time to start rigorously examining relationships between pedagogical methods and specific outcomes. Re-confirming past reviews and meta-analyses, we find that EE impact research still predominantly focuses on short-term and subjective outcome measures and tends to severely under-describe the actual pedagogies being tested. Moreover, we use our review to provide an up-to-date and empirically rooted call for less obvious, yet greatly promising, new or underemphasised directions for future research on the impact of university-based entrepreneurship education. This includes, for example, the use of novel impact indicators related to emotion and mindset, focus on the impact indicators related to the intention-to-behaviour transition, and explore the reasons for some of the contradictory findings in impact studies including person-, context- and pedagogical model-specific moderators.

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This article is presenting an overview of the literature devoted to entrepreneurial learning and, more speci cally, those research bringing environmental elements into the study of the entrepreneurial learning process. Then, it shows how each of the four Special Issue selected research papers contribute to enhancing our knowledge of the complexity of the learning process vis-à-vis entrepreneurial processes placed in context. By doing this, it makes an attempt to explain the speci c context behind each contribution as well as presenting the wider context. Finally, the article is suggesting a set of key challenges and research pathways that might be explored in the future.

Using a teaching model framework, we systematically review empirical evidence on the impact of entrepreneurship education (EE) in higher education on a range of learning outcomes, analysing 159 published articles from 2004-2016. The teaching model framework allows us for the first time to start rigorously examining relationships between pedagogical methods and specific outcomes. Re-confirming past reviews and meta-analyses, we find that EE impact research still predominantly focuses on short-term and subjective outcome measures and tends to severely under-describe the actual pedagogies being tested. Moreover, we use our review to provide an up-to-date and empirically rooted call for less obvious, yet greatly promising, new or underemphasised directions for future research on the impact of university-based entrepreneurship education. This includes, for example, the use of novel impact indicators related to emotion and mindset, focus on the impact indicators related to the intention-to-behaviour transition, and explore the reasons for some of the contradictory findings in impact studies including person-, context- and pedagogical model-specific moderators.

This thesis seeks to understand the impact of multiple strategic orientations on micro-family business performance in a developing economy context in three distinct phases. First, we asked whether family microentrepreneurs improve their performance by simultaneously developing entrepreneurial and market-oriented activities. We also explored whether these complementary strategic performance orientations are fostered by social capital, in the form of business and social ties. In addition, we raised a question about the effect of family intervention on performance in the context of multiple strategic orientations. The initial study provided a fruitful research theme on family business in an institutional environment. We showed that family microenterprises optimize their business performance by investing in higher levels of entrepreneurial and business orientation. Moreover, the process of socialization with the business environment increases performance through the combined effects of entrepreneurial and market orientations in an emerging economy context. Contrary to what one might think, the study found that firm performance increases when both orientations are high, but only when family involvement is low. This result improved the understanding of the influence of family on the development of strategic behaviors to achieve better performance. The subsequent study, examines and reveals the dark and light side of family in relation to entrepreneurial and market orientation strategies and its impact on performance. The final quantitative study contradicts previous research revealing the importance of family capabilities in supporting risky behaviors to increase family wealth in an emerging context.

The objective of this thesis is to provide new theoretical and empirical insights into the formation of entrepreneurial opportunities. To better understand this phenomenon, we mobilized two main approaches, the discovery approach and the opportunity creation approach. A quantitative study based on a questionnaire was conducted with Tunisian entrepreneurs in order to determine the factors of formation of the entrepreneurial opportunity. The results show that in the Tunisian context, the discovery of opportunities is dominant given that the Tunisian entrepreneurial ecosystem does not promote innovation and opportunity creation. This research work contributes to the knowledge of entrepreneurship practices and the modes of support for entrepreneurs.

The concept of collective intelligence supports the notion that the coexistence of different perspectives is a necessary condition for a complex system to adapt to the environment and to keep its vitality. Transposing this assumption to a scientific community, we investigate the field of entrepreneurial intention studies and examine its internal dynamics by identifying the relevant practices to conduct research. Specifically, we conduct a hybrid bibliometric analysis to discover 68 articles constituting the field’s knowledge base and 83 articles representing its research fronts. This analysis is completed by an analytical coding of each paper according to the collective intelligence framework proposed by Woolley and Fuchs (2011). We find both a convergent and a divergent perspective. the former oriented to clarifying and bounding concepts, theories, and contexts. the latter interested in opening new paths. However, a reflective perspective that calls into question the field’s assumptions to reformulate directions and general purposes is still lacking. Our results suggest a set of priorities to be taken into account in the interest of driving future research.

This paper is the first in a JSBM special issue on entrepreneurship in family firms, i.e., the firm-level entrepreneurial activities and attitudes that occur when a family is considerably involved in an established organization. We provide a systematic literature review of 109 articles written on this growing issue, based on a framework that highlights the antecedents, outcomes, and processes of entrepreneurship in family firms. We also offer a brief overview of the contributions of each of the papers in this issue and conclude by outlining a research agenda for future activities in this area of inquiry.

Using a teaching model framework, we systematically review empirical evidence on the impact of entrepreneurship education (EE) in higher education on a range of learning outcomes, analysing 159 published articles from 2004-2016. The teaching model framework allows us for the first time to start rigorously examining relationships between pedagogical methods and specific outcomes. Re-confirming past reviews and meta-analyses, we find that EE impact research still predominantly focuses on short-term and subjective outcome measures and tends to severely under-describe the actual pedagogies being tested. Moreover, we use our review to provide an up-to-date and empirically rooted call for less obvious, yet greatly promising, new or underemphasised directions for future research on the impact of university-based entrepreneurship education. This includes, for example, the use of novel impact indicators related to emotion and mindset, focus on the impact indicators related to the intention-to-behaviour transition, and explore the reasons for some of the contradictory findings in impact studies including person-, context- and pedagogical model-specific moderators.

Since its emergence in the early eighties, the subject of Corporate Entrepreneurship has gained relevance as a subject of academic research and in the world of business practice.

In order to understand what triggers action, researchers have studied intention and its determinants for decades. Specifically, entrepreneurship has been widely studied using the intention models. However, only few intended entrepreneurs enact their intentions in the end. As a proof, the variance explained by entrepreneurial intention in actual behaviour is estimated at 37%. So the entrepreneurial intention–behaviour link still has a lot to reveal, leaving a gap in the literature. This article first reminds the difference between goal intention and implementation intention and posits that intention models actually refer to goal intention only. As it has been proven in different contexts that by automatizing individuals’ responses to anticipated cues, implementation intention increases the probability to act, we propose to observe what could be the role of implementation intention in the entrepreneurial intention–behaviour link. The originality and main contribution of this experimental study is that it is the first attempt to operationalize implementation intention on such a complex behaviour. Even if the experiment enables us to make observations more than statistically valid findings, it paves the way for more empirical research on the subject, and it still allows to suggest what could be the benefit of using implementation intention in that field. It should now be tested on a larger scale to be statistically reliable.

Although training and development is recognized as an important means to nurture corporate entrepreneurs in organizations, extant research has focused primarily on efforts to develop entrepreneurial leaders and nurture business creation in a school or university setting. We report on the findings of an inductive case study of corporate entrepreneurship training in a large multinational corporation. We explore the learning outcomes which participants experienced, and outline how an action learning approach enabled these learning outcomes. Our emergent model of corporate entrepreneurship training is based on an episodic view of training, recognizing that individual, group and situational influences, need to be considered if a more complete understanding of what makes for effective training in this domain is to be developed.

This editorial discusses contemporary entrepreneurship education research and identifies the manner in which the three articles comprising this special issue contribute to advancing the theoretical and methodological foundations of the field. In so doing we seek to describe how and why entrepreneurship education research may struggle for legitimacy along with the complexities of working in this field. This special issue raises questions about entrepreneurship education research and, through the featured articles provides some responses. This special issue itself, however, is presented as part of an ongoing discussion about the nature and role of entrepreneurship education more widely and is intended to provoke further critical engagement and stimulate theoretical and methodological development.

In this article, we briefly identify three main challenges/issues that should be taken into consideration in the institutionalization of entrepreneurship research: (1) recognizing the complexity of the phenomenon under study. (2) producing interesting, relevant and useful research results for all stakeholders. and (3) developing a critical posture in research. Following the discussion of these challenges/issues we introduce the five contributions to the Special Issue that, in different ways, problematize and challenge mainstream research and approaches. These articles use ‘dissensus discourses’, apply critical, ideological and paradigmatic stances and in some cases underline the importance of contextual factors.

This article introduces various aspects of technology business incubators (TBIs), emphasizing their increasing role in the spatial context where they are used as platforms and drivers of regional entrepreneurial ecosystems. It outlines the key themes of the emerging role of TBIs in sustainable regional development: TBI biodiversity of ecosystems. accelerating startups in the entrepreneurial university. TBI mechanisms challenged by green technology to sustain regional development. and TBIs’ connecting role between entrepreneurship education, experiential knowledge, and regional development. It proposes an agenda for future research on the role of TBIs as bridging mechanisms and drivers of entrepreneurship and regional development.

The aim of this qualitative study is to identify how the perceptions of the entrepreneur on the nature of the opportunity (objective reality/social construction) and his/her cognitive style (analytical/intuitive) influence the process of opportunity pursuit (analytic process/intuition-based process). We find that if expected alignments (analysis/causation/objective opportunity versus intuition/effectuation/constructed opportunity) appear, they are not systematic, and that firm industry and position in the sector are determinant.

In an effort to understand what drives entrepreneurs to act, entrepreneurship researchers have been using intention models in their studies for decades. The most famous are Azjen's Theory of Planned Action and Shapero and Sokol's Entrepreneurial Event. However, these models can be improved. Indeed, they assume that intention is a good predictor of behavior, whereas only less than half of the variations in entrepreneurial behavior can be explained by intention. Moreover, models of intention focus only on the antecedents of intention. Our thesis, which consists of four papers, aims to address this shortcoming in order to improve our understanding of the entrepreneurial process. Our objective is to highlight the facilitators that would allow us to effectively move from intention to action. We therefore take up the challenge of partially uncovering the black box that lies between intention and entrepreneurial behavior. We selected commitment and planned intention from the social psychological literature as possible missing links, and tested them in entrepreneurial contexts.Thus, by focusing on the volitional part, our thesis complements models of intention in order to improve our knowledge of the entrepreneurial process. It aims to serve project owners, politicians, teachers and the various actors involved in monitoring entrepreneurs. Indeed, all of them can use what we have highlighted to increase the conversion rate of the entrepreneurial intention. Our objective is to propose new material to help project leaders realize their intentions, but the size of our samples limits our empirical studies to exploratory studies. Our results must now be confirmed quantitatively.

In order to understand what triggers action, researchers have studied intention and its determinants for decades. Specifically, entrepreneurship has been widely studied using the intention models. However, only few intended entrepreneurs enact their intentions in the end. As a proof, the variance explained by entrepreneurial intention in actual behaviour is estimated at 37%. So the entrepreneurial intention–behaviour link still has a lot to reveal, leaving a gap in the literature. This article first reminds the difference between goal intention and implementation intention and posits that intention models actually refer to goal intention only. As it has been proven in different contexts that by automatizing individuals’ responses to anticipated cues, implementation intention increases the probability to act, we propose to observe what could be the role of implementation intention in the entrepreneurial intention–behaviour link. The originality and main contribution of this experimental study is that it is the first attempt to operationalize implementation intention on such a complex behaviour. Even if the experiment enables us to make observations more than statistically valid findings, it paves the way for more empirical research on the subject, and it still allows to suggest what could be the benefit of using implementation intention in that field. It should now be tested on a larger scale to be statistically reliable.

The article examines the importance of active labor market programs (ALMP) targeted at entrepreneurship to explain cross- country differences in aggregate entrepreneurship rate. Using GEM data over the period 2002-2013 on 25 countries, the results suggest that start-up incentive programs are important driver of necessity entrepreneurship. However generous unemployment benefits reduce the positive outcome of ALMP on aggregate rate of necessity entrepreneurs. Because ALMP is the main determinant of necessity entrepreneurs, we find that the economic spin-off of such programs in terms of unemployment reduction is limited.

Although training and development is recognized as an important means to nurture corporate entrepreneurs in organizations, extant research has focused primarily on efforts to develop entrepreneurial leaders and nurture business creation in a school or university setting. We report on the findings of an inductive case study of corporate entrepreneurship training in a large multinational corporation. We explore the learning outcomes which participants experienced, and outline how an action learning approach enabled these learning outcomes. Our emergent model of corporate entrepreneurship training is based on an episodic view of training, recognizing that individual, group and situational influences, need to be considered if a more complete understanding of what makes for effective training in this domain is to be developed.

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In this article, we briefly identify three main challenges/issues that should be taken into consideration in the institutionalization of entrepreneurship research: (1) recognizing the complexity of the phenomenon under study. (2) producing interesting, relevant and useful research results for all stakeholders. and (3) developing a critical posture in research. Following the discussion of these challenges/issues we introduce the five contributions to the Special Issue that, in different ways, problematize and challenge mainstream research and approaches. These articles use ‘dissensus discourses’, apply critical, ideological and paradigmatic stances and in some cases underline the importance of contextual factors.

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Entrepreneurship is undoubtedly a social process and creating a firm requires both the mobilization of social networks and the use of social capital. This book addresses the gap that exists between the need to take these factors into consideration and the understanding of how network relationships are developed and transformed across the venturing process. Expert contributions from key scholars in the field illustrate how social networks evolve across entrepreneurial stages, using studies from different regions across the world. Offering a comprehensive understanding, they emphasize the role of formal networks created inside professions and firms. Also examined is the impact of context, including both family and internationally variable institutions, that can help entrepreneurs to access resources and competencies useful for their projects. The book concludes by emphasizing the various research challenges: which theories are useful for our endeavours and which new methods can be used to understand the dynamics of the venturing process? Dynamic and eminently practical, this book will be invaluable to scholars and students studying the entrepreneurial process and the impact of social networks. It will also prove a useful tool in aiding entrepreneurs to optimize the development of their networks and better manage their entrepreneurial processes.

This paper introduces Technology Business Incubation (TBI) as a field of study and practice, exploring the concept, its evolution, and scholarship. Science parks, incubators and accelerators are TBI mechanisms considered to be important policy tools for supporting innovation and technology-oriented entrepreneurial growth. Their popularity is premised on the belief that these mechanisms provide critical value-added inputs essential for the creation and development of innovative Technology-Based Firms (TBFs). However, determining what type of TBI mechanisms and policies are most conducive to achieving the desired results is very much mission-driven and context-specific. A review of the past three decades of incubation literature, emerging practice, and future trends reveals that despite ongoing debate about their contribution and challenges, the future of TBIs is promising, and there are rich opportunities for research.

Our thesis is set in a French context marked by the increase in entrepreneurial networks, the functioning and benefits of which are still little known, since entrepreneurship research is more interested in the entrepreneur's personal network than in the analysis of closed entrepreneurial networks. However, their importance for the construction and consolidation of the social capital of their members has been emphasized in recent years. The objective of our thesis is to propose a theoretical and methodological framework for evaluating the contributions of formal entrepreneurial networks from a social capital perspective. Based on recent contributions related to the entrepreneur's network, the social capital generated by networking activity and the community of practice, we present a theoretical framework to study the flows of advice, business opportunities and tangible resources circulating in formal entrepreneurial networks, as well as the creation of perceived value for members. A mixed research methodology (sociometric questionnaire and semi-structured interviews) is used to study this issue in the context of the Centre des Jeunes Dirigeants La Defense. Of the nine propositions formulated from our research model, four are fully validated, two are partially confirmed and three are invalidated. Our results indicate that the structural position in the network, the content and the perceived benefits of the networking activity vary according to the profile of the members (the entrepreneur profile, defined on the basis of the entrepreneurial experience and the networker profile, defined on the basis of the networking experience). We present the theoretical, methodological and practical implications of our research for the study of formal entrepreneurial networks and their use by members.

The concept of entrepreneurial vigilance introduced by Kirzner (1973) plays a key role in the process of detecting business opportunities. Since the work conducted by the Austrian school, this concept has been widely developed and has raised a number of questions among researchers. The cognitive approach has made it possible to provide some answers by refining the concept. Building on Kirzner's (1973, 1989) initial work and that of the cognitivist approach, Tang et al. (2012) proposed a new, more integrative definition. These authors modeled and operationalized entrepreneurial vigilance around three dimensions: information watch and search, the ability to make associations and connections between information, and the ability to evaluate and judge it. The question of the potential antecedents of entrepreneurial vigilance remained unresolved (Valliere, 2013). In response to Valliere's (2013) observation and the knowledge and statistical needs of the field of entrepreneurial health, we investigated the effects of sleep on this process. To this end, attention theory was used to make connections between the fields of entrepreneurship and sleep. In order to answer the problematic, a positivist posture, associated with a hypothetical-deductive reasoning mode, was adopted. Thirteen research hypotheses were proposed from which the conceptual model was constructed. In order to validate it, a two-month quantitative cross-sectional study was conducted with SME managers. At the end of this survey, 238 questionnaires were collected. These were analyzed by the structural equation method based on partial least squares (PLS). The results underline the importance of sleep in maintaining cognitive, attentional and entrepreneurial capacities for an SME manager.

Entrepreneurship is undoubtedly a social process and creating a firm requires both the mobilization of social networks and the use of social capital. This book addresses the gap that exists between the need to take these factors into consideration and the understanding of how network relationships are developed and transformed across the venturing process. Expert contributions from key scholars in the field illustrate how social networks evolve across entrepreneurial stages, using studies from different regions across the world. Offering a comprehensive understanding, they emphasize the role of formal networks created inside professions and firms. Also examined is the impact of context, including both family and internationally variable institutions, that can help entrepreneurs to access resources and competencies useful for their projects. The book concludes by emphasizing the various research challenges: which theories are useful for our endeavours and which new methods can be used to understand the dynamics of the venturing process? Dynamic and eminently practical, this book will be invaluable to scholars and students studying the entrepreneurial process and the impact of social networks. It will also prove a useful tool in aiding entrepreneurs to optimize the development of their networks and better manage their entrepreneurial processes.

Necessity entrepreneurs are seen as "individuals driven to start a business because they perceive no better employment alternative" (Cowling, Bygrave, 2003, p.544). They are contrasted, in a commonly accepted dichotomy, with opportunity entrepreneurs, those who pursue a business opportunity they have identified or created[.]

Entrepreneurial intention is a rapidly evolving field of research. A growing number of studies use entrepreneurial intention as a powerful theoretical framework. However, a substantial part of this research lacks systematization and categorization, and there seems to be a tendency to start anew with every study. Therefore, there is a need to take stock of current knowledge in this field. In this sense, this paper carries out a review of the literature on entrepreneurial intentions. A total of 409 papers addressing entrepreneurial intention, published between 2004 and 2013 (inclusive), have been analyzed. The purpose and contribution of this paper is to offer a clearer picture of the sub-fields in entrepreneurial intention research, by concentrating on two aspects. Firstly, it reviews recent research by means of a citation analysis to categorize the main areas of specialization currently attracting the attention of the academic community. Secondly, a thematic analysis is carried out to identify the specific themes being researched within each category. Despite the large number of publications and their diversity, the present study identifies five main research areas, plus an additional sixth category for a number of new research papers that cannot be easily classified into the five areas. Within those categories, up to twenty-five different themes are recognized. A number of research gaps are singled out within each of these areas of specialization, in order to induce new ways and perspectives in the entrepreneurial intention field of research that may be fruitful in filling these gaps.

A critical challenge for entrepreneurship scholars is the need to develop a greater understanding of (1) how, when and why entrepreneurial networks emerge, develop and change over time and (2) how network evolution impacts on the entrepreneurial trajectory. This special issue of Entrepreneurship & Regional Development begins to address these challenges by presenting a range of current works that further increase our understanding about social network dynamics during the entrepreneurial process. We begin by connecting this special issue to some of the main challenges of the field of entrepreneurship. From this, we propose an integrative perspective required to move thinking forward. We then summarize how the diverse papers presented in this special issue contribute to opening up the research field further and help us develop a greater understanding about the challenges entrepreneurship scholars face. We conclude this article with lessons and suggestions for future research.

This research note presents some food for thought about linking and relating the family, family business and entrepreneurship fields. Although each field has developed an important body of knowledge and some work has been done at the intersections, we show that many important questions remain unanswered. We first offer a brief review of the main research streams and perspectives in the topic areas, shedding light on the significant contributions and highlighting some outstanding research questions. We then examine the intersection of all three fields and offer recommendations on how these might be researched. We propose theories, perspectives, methods, epistemological stances as well as interesting questions for further investigation.

Entreprendre et Innover has just completed its seventh year of existence and has been included in the latest ranking of academic journals in management sciences established by the FNEGE. We wanted to mark this anniversary and this recognition by taking a short break, the time to offer you these two anniversary issues, to share with you some highlights [...].

The purpose of this thesis is to understand how and by what mechanisms multi-generational family businesses regenerate. Research on family firms, and more generally on entrepreneurship, responds to debates that have emerged in recent years. The theoretical anchoring comes from the interweaving of two rarely associated theoretical bodies of knowledge, family business and strategic regeneration. The work has focused specifically on the multi-generational family firm for what it offers as a potential study of the family dimension and the importance of the generational aspect in strategic behavior. As a result, some key concepts of strategic regeneration have emerged leading to the sustainability of the family business. Using a historical and narrative approach, we analyzed the strategic regeneration processes in four century-old family businesses. The results obtained allowed us to understand the role of the family in the strategic regeneration process and to propose an integrative model of strategic regeneration in the family business.

This research note presents some food for thought about linking and relating the family, family business and entrepreneurship fields. Although each field has developed an important body of knowledge and some work has been done at the intersections, we show that many important questions remain unanswered. We first offer a brief review of the main research streams and perspectives in the topic areas, shedding light on the significant contributions and highlighting some outstanding research questions. We then examine the intersection of all three fields and offer recommendations on how these might be researched. We propose theories, perspectives, methods, epistemological stances as well as interesting questions for further investigation.

A critical challenge for entrepreneurship scholars is the need to develop a greater understanding of (1) how, when and why entrepreneurial networks emerge, develop and change over time and (2) how network evolution impacts on the entrepreneurial trajectory. This special issue of Entrepreneurship & Regional Development begins to address these challenges by presenting a range of current works that further increase our understanding about social network dynamics during the entrepreneurial process. We begin by connecting this special issue to some of the main challenges of the field of entrepreneurship. From this, we propose an integrative perspective required to move thinking forward. We then summarize how the diverse papers presented in this special issue contribute to opening up the research field further and help us develop a greater understanding about the challenges entrepreneurship scholars face. We conclude this article with lessons and suggestions for future research.

Since 1980s, many authors have studied the entrepreneurial process based on the intention models developed in the sociopsychological literature. Determinants of intention were defined, but as shown by Ajzen (1987), no direct link was established between intention and action: intentions were found to explain only about 30% of the variance in behaviour. Some authors tried to bridge this gap, by focusing more specifically on environmental factors. Our paper is in line with works by Shane et al. (2003), in studying factors at the micro level. Drawing on the sociopsychological literature, it focuses on two psychological factors that can explain why some people with entrepreneurial intentions act when others do not. As it addresses the missing link between entrepreneurial intention and behaviour from a sociopsychological approach, the main contribution of this theoretical paper is to enhance our knowledge of the entrepreneurial process, in order to improve the training and support of nascent entrepreneurs.

The purpose of this book chapter is to share findings related to succession of family businesses in Republic of Macedonia. In order to gain a better picture of the current situation, problems and perspectives that stand in front of families with respect to succession issue it was conducted a survey. The questionnaire was distributed to the owners of several businesses as well as through e-mail. The questionnaire was distributed to 140 businesses, depending on the size of cities.

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Research on the entrepreneurial network continues to grow. However, the knowledge produced on the dynamics of the construction of this network over time remains limited. This observation is even more pronounced for those interested in the study of the antecedent phase of the entrepreneurial process. Taking Bruyat's (1993) conception of entrepreneurship as the theoretical foundation, the authors followed the progressive formation of the entrepreneurial network over a period of two years. They mobilized the actor-network theory to study this dynamic in a situation of innovative business creation.

Female Entrepreneurship in Transition Economies explores different topics in the field of female entrepreneurship, such as motivational factors of female entrepreneurs, career perspectives of women, problems and challenges, innovativeness, risk management, financing opportunities, social female enterprises, tourism and hospitality, emotional and institutional support of female entrepreneurial initiatives and small businesses in the perspective of different transitional countries. This book represents a comprehensive state-of-the-art picture of female entrepreneurship issues and beside theoretical background, provides a mosaic of empirical evidence that is very likely to offer a brighter view of this field from the perspective of the transitional countries. The study is an outcome of long lasting endeavour and it includes contributions of motivated scholars and experts from the transitional countries and beyond specially written for the purposes of this book.

Apart from the growing interest in international entrepreneurship and organizational entrepreneurship as new avenues of reflection, academic research in both fields does not seem to place sufficient emphasis on the processes and dynamics underlying the rapid internationalization of SMEs and the formation of their entrepreneurial orientations (EO). The present research aims to propose a systemic understanding of the entrepreneurial processes of the rapidly internationalizing SME by placing the logic of identifying export opportunities at the heart of our reflection. The first part of this thesis is devoted to the theoretical foundations of the research, addressing the key concepts of our conceptual framework. The second part empirically addresses the research problem. After an initial contextualization analysis, the results of a multiple case study of six young Moroccan exporting SMEs in the agribusiness sector are presented and analyzed. The research highlights internal vectors (knowledge, experience and social capital) and external constraints (nature of the activity and characteristics of the local market) as determinants of the rapid internationalization of the SMEs studied. More importantly, two different configurations of EO are described in relation to two distinct logics of identifying export opportunities (a causal and an effectual logic).

There are many factors involved in becoming an effective entrepreneur. The process of recognizing opportunities and nurturing new ventures must take into account both internal decision-making practice and external environmental influence. Developing, Shaping and Growing Entrepreneurship considers the role played by education, research, context and strategy in helping to grow entrepreneurial projects from the initial seed of an idea through to the fruition of success. This book is a wide-ranging examination of the influences on entrepreneurial activity that also asks new questions of entrepreneurship and opens new avenues of research. As such, it will become essential reading for academic researchers and entrepreneurial practitioners alike.

There are many factors involved in becoming an effective entrepreneur. The process of recognizing opportunities and nurturing new ventures must take into account both internal decision-making practice and external environmental influence. Developing, Shaping and Growing Entrepreneurship considers the role played by education, research, context and strategy in helping to grow entrepreneurial projects from the initial seed of an idea through to the fruition of success. This book is a wide-ranging examination of the influences on entrepreneurial activity that also asks new questions of entrepreneurship and opens new avenues of research. As such, it will become essential reading for academic researchers and entrepreneurial practitioners alike.

Entrepreneurial intention is a rapidly evolving field of research. A growing number of studies use entrepreneurial intention as a powerful theoretical framework. However, a substantial part of this research lacks systematization and categorization, and there seems to be a tendency to start anew with every study. Therefore, there is a need to take stock of current knowledge in this field. In this sense, this paper carries out a review of the literature on entrepreneurial intentions. A total of 409 papers addressing entrepreneurial intention, published between 2004 and 2013 (inclusive), have been analyzed. The purpose and contribution of this paper is to offer a clearer picture of the sub-fields in entrepreneurial intention research, by concentrating on two aspects. Firstly, it reviews recent research by means of a citation analysis to categorize the main areas of specialization currently attracting the attention of the academic community. Secondly, a thematic analysis is carried out to identify the specific themes being researched within each category. Despite the large number of publications and their diversity, the present study identifies five main research areas, plus an additional sixth category for a number of new research papers that cannot be easily classified into the five areas. Within those categories, up to twenty-five different themes are recognized. A number of research gaps are singled out within each of these areas of specialization, in order to induce new ways and perspectives in the entrepreneurial intention field of research that may be fruitful in filling these gap.

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The longevity of family businesses is of interest to researchers. The contributions in this dossier shed light on the sources of this question. Emphasis is placed on the role of family dynamics in the longevity of the family firm, without neglecting the multiple ingredients that can contribute to it within the firm. Finally, emphasis is placed on the importance of methodological choices in order to understand the determinants of the longevity of firms.

The role of values and motivations in understanding the entrepreneurial cognitive process deserves closer attention. So far, the predominant approach has been studying the entrepreneurial intention. This has been a very fruitful avenue of research. However, there is still much to be known to fully understand how the decision to start a venture is formed, and how the individual acts to implement that decision. Values and motivations are closely related, since both of them are linked to the notion of goals. The higher the importance attached to a goal, the more likely the person will form action plans to achieve it. In this paper, we present some ideas on how values and motivations could be integrated into the predominant entrepreneurial intention model. Firstly, we propose that values may help to explain the formation of intention antecedents (e.g., attitudes), and also moderate their effect on the entrepreneurial intention. Secondly, we point to the possibility that values and motivations may also play a role in the intention–action link. In particular, they may be instrumental in overcoming the barriers and obstacles toward effective start-up. In addition, this paper is also an introduction to the special issue, and we present the four papers selected to be included and highlight some of the most interesting aspects of their contributions.

Purpose This paper seeks to advance ongoing research in entrepreneurial perseverance. While the concept of perseverance is not new (Clark, 1935), few researchers paid attention to behavioural persistence in the entrepreneurial context. Our objective is to explore the emergence of New Technology Based Firms (NTBF) by focusing on the role of nascent entrepreneurs’ social skills in the meeting the changes of entrepreneurial perseverance. Design/methodology/approach In this paper we study the start-up phase of entrepreneurial process. We opted for a longitudinal case study approach in order to enhance our knowledge on entrepreneurs’ social skills and perseverance. For triangulation purpose the data were gathered using four different information sources. The use of Nvivo8 as the data analysis tool helped to impose a discipline and structure which facilitated the extraction of core insights. Findings This article contributes to our understanding of the entrepreneurial perseverance in the context of new venture creation. Particularly, reading the entrepreneurial process through the lens of the perseverance strategies model (Van Gelderen, 2012) provided a way to identify and then to assess the impact of the social skills on the overall entrepreneurial perseverance and their combined impact on the performance of NTBF creation process. In doing so, we identify the impact of entrepreneurs’ social skills to deal with a series of entrepreneurial problems such as scarcity of resources, uncertainty and ambiguity and consequently their impact on the likelihood of survival for new ventures. The issues that arose mostly reflected the inherent complexity of technology transfer processes, the university and entrepreneurs’ diverging cultures, and the very characteristics of the start-up phase of NTBFs. Our findings reveal how social skills impact the entrepreneurial paths and probable outcomes. Research limitations/implications This article contributes to our understanding of the entrepreneurial perseverance in the context of new technology based firm creation. Our findings reveal how social skills and perseverance impact the entrepreneurial paths and probable outcomes. Practical implications Our article has implications for entrepreneurial support mechanisms such as technology business incubators in helping them to improve the efficacy and efficiency of their assistance to entrepreneurs through the development of their skill-sets and perseverance and providing enabling networking. In addition, our research has implications for entrepreneurship education and training. Indeed, there is an urgent need to design and implement courses and programs aiming at developing soft-skills in entrepreneurship. Originality/value In exploring networking and issues of perseverance for nascent entrepreneurs operating in new technology-based sectors, which we consider as an under searched area in entrepreneurial literature.

Entrepreneurial intention is a rapidly evolving field of research, with a growing number of studies using entrepreneurial intention as a powerful theoretical framework. Some authors, however, are now calling for scholars to rethink the future of research on entrepreneurial intentions. This paper addresses this issue and, on the basis of a number of knowledge gaps in the literature, proposes future directions for research.

Entrepreneurial intention is a rapidly evolving field of research, with a growing number of studies using entrepreneurial intention as a powerful theoretical framework. Some authors, however, are now calling for scholars to rethink the future of research on entrepreneurial intentions. This paper addresses this issue and, on the basis of a number of knowledge gaps in the literature, proposes future directions for research.

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Entrepreneurs are confronted with professional stressors that can affect their professional capacities through the development of burnout. However, they are not included in studies on psychosocial risks, even though the negative effects of working conditions, the individual's relationship to his or her work and factors that improve performance have been identified. The problem addressed in this work intends to respond to this gap by proposing an investigation of the factors and consequences related to burnout among entrepreneurs. The collection and analysis of life stories allowed us to highlight such factors and consequences in this population. These results allowed us to build a study model taking into account existing models, while enriching them with variables specific to the entrepreneur population. This model was then tested, using the structural equation method, with a sample of 280 SME owner-managers on the basis of an online questionnaire. The hypotheses of mediation of burnout between the demands and the set of consequences: job satisfaction, work-family conflict and entrepreneurial orientation, are validated. However, the two moderation hypotheses, decision latitude and family and friend social support, were not validated. Job demands reduce job satisfaction, work-family balance, and entrepreneurial orientation through burnout. Demands also directly affect job satisfaction and work-family conflict. Excessive demands and burnout interfere with the entrepreneurial process. These interferences raise questions about the situations that lead to burnout, the strong emotional attachment of entrepreneurs to their project, and the negative repercussions on the health of the entrepreneur and on the future of the company. Prevention becomes an issue for professional structures intended for entrepreneurs and managers.

This paper seeks to advance ongoing research in entrepreneurial perseverance. While the concept of perseverance is not new, few researchers paid attention to behavioural persistence in the entrepreneurial context. The purpose of this paper is to explore the emergence of new technology based firms (NTBF) by focusing on the role of nascent entrepreneurs’ social skills in the meeting the changes of entrepreneurial perseverance.

The role of values and motivations in understanding the entrepreneurial cognitive process deserves closer attention. So far, the predominant approach has been studying the entrepreneurial intention. This has been a very fruitful avenue of research. However, there is still much to be known to fully understand how the decision to start a venture is formed, and how the individual acts to implement that decision. Values and motivations are closely related, since both of them are linked to the notion of goals. The higher the importance attached to a goal, the more likely the person will form action plans to achieve it. In this paper, we present some ideas on how values and motivations could be integrated into the predominant entrepreneurial intention model. Firstly, we propose that values may help to explain the formation of intention antecedents (e.g., attitudes), and also moderate their effect on the entrepreneurial intention. Secondly, we point to the possibility that values and motivations may also play a role in the intention-action link. In particular, they may be instrumental in overcoming the barriers and obstacles toward effective start-up. In addition, this paper is also an introduction to the special issue, and we present the four papers selected to be included and highlight some of the most interesting aspects of their contributions.

In this monograph we focus on family entrepreneurship, a developing field that studies entrepreneurial behaviors of family, family members and family businesses by taking into account the possible interplays among them. We offer a conceptualization together with a review of the literature as well as a research agenda of this field. Our conceptualization of family entrepreneurship makes it possible to disentangle complex relationships that characterize the field while the review of the literature offers some examples of how entrepreneurial behaviors can be affected by the family business context. The proposed research agenda offers some guidelines for future research that should advance our knowledge of family entrepreneurship.

The thesis aims to explain the dynamics of the evolution of high-tech business creation projects through the different configurations taken by technological and organizational development. The literature review in the field of technological entrepreneurship has shown a great wealth of explanatory factors of the evolution of the projects of creation of companies but also deficiencies of the role allotted to technology which confer it a status of artifact and not that of process with whole share. A conceptual approach to the creation of a high-tech company based on the theory of the network actor makes it possible to go beyond deterministic approaches in order to focus on the joint development of the technology and the organization. The case of a high-tech innovation from invention to exploitation is analyzed in depth using a research-intervention approach. The analysis leads to the elaboration of a decision support tool (the intervention device) and a dynamic model of the creation of the high-tech company different from those presented in the entrepreneurial literature. The main contributions lie in the assistance to strategic decision making and to the construction of the organization. This assistance, initially based on intervention practices, has gradually evolved into a collective learning process based on a rational model of the construction of the technological enterprise, promoting the emergence of new knowledge that can be shared and sustained over time.

Research on the entrepreneurial network continues to grow. However, the knowledge produced on the dynamics of the construction of this network over time remains limited. This observation is even more pronounced for those interested in the study of the antecedent phase of the entrepreneurial process. Taking Bruyat's (1993) conception of entrepreneurship as the theoretical foundation, the authors followed the progressive formation of the entrepreneurial network over a period of two years. They mobilized the actor-network theory to study this dynamic in a situation of innovative business creation.

The success of an innovative entrepreneurial project depends on the ability of its owner to surround himself with key resource players. Studying the dynamics of the formation of the entrepreneur's social network should contribute to a better understanding of the entrepreneurial process. A longitudinal study conducted in France on six technology start-up projects reveals that the entrepreneurial network emerges against a background of problems and obstacles. In this context, the social skills of the entrepreneur and the material objects he or she mobilizes play an important and complementary role in the dynamics of the construction of social links.

This insightful Handbook offers a lens through which to view entrepreneurship strategy for higher education institutions, as it becomes increasingly necessary for universities to consider changing their strategies, culture and practices to become more entrepreneurial. Is the idea of an entrepreneurial university a myth or a reality? Is the university model capable of adapting to new evolving trends and a more complex professional world? And, what is the impact of entrepreneurship in education? Through extensive research and case studies from some of the leading entrepreneurial thinkers around the world, Alain Fayolle and Dana Redford answer these questions and raise further issues for debate. Particular focus is given to developing university strategy, public policy and start-up support as a means to foster graduate entrepreneurship. Each contribution explores different perspectives related to the entrepreneurial university concept and its role in stimulating economic growth through cooperative relationships with business and government. As a comprehensive study of the entrepreneurial university, this Handbook will prove invaluable to business and entrepreneurship students and academics, as well as university administrators, researchers and others interested in the evolution of the university.

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Faced with both collective and individual challenges for creators, support systems have progressively imposed themselves, constituting, since the 1980's, a general reality in Europe and more particularly in France. Among the practices of support for business creation, our interest in this research work is focused on the phenomenon of entrepreneurial accompaniment. Initially approached from a rather technical and collective point of view, entrepreneurial support has evolved into a practice of assistance to business creation based on an interpersonal relationship of influence between a business owner and an external actor and on a process of action based on multiple learning and the development of skills.If in the current state of research in entrepreneurship, the whole of the contributions of the accompaniment by the structure contributes to a better success of the accompanied carriers, we are more particularly interested, in our research work, in the other "hidden facet" of the relation of accompaniment which is the accompaniers and in this problematic of what these professional actors learn in their practices of accompaniment within the structures of accompaniment. We have, therefore, asked ourselves the question: To what extent do entrepreneurial coaching experiences affect the experiential learning outcomes and the individual and organizational behaviors of the coaches in Réseau Entreprendre ®? To answer this question, we mobilized the experiential learning theory (Kolb, 1985) as the reference model for our research. The meeting between the two basic concepts of our research, namely, entrepreneurial coaching and more specifically, the coach and Kolb's experiential learning theory (1984) allowed us to build our conceptual model by linking four main variables. These variables are associated with entrepreneurial coaching experiences, individual characteristics of coaches, experiential learning outcomes, and finally, changes in individual and organizational behaviors of coaches. Using a quantitative methodology, we administered a questionnaire to a sample of 205 business creation project coaches in 38 Réseau Entreprendre associations in France. The results of our quantitative analyses are obtained from SPSS and bring a better understanding of the learning cycle of the mentor in the support structures in general and in Réseau Entreprendre, in particular. The implications and contributions of our research work are theoretical, methodological and practical.

This important book identifies the current developments within entrepreneurship that are characterized by conceptual richness and methodological diversity. It presents the latest developments of topics such as the entrepreneurial mindset, culture and values as well as advances in entrepreneurship education and development. The contributors open the field for methodological renewal by introducing the current state of and opportunities for explorative research in entrepreneurship.

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At a time when public authorities are implementing a policy to promote entrepreneurial attitudes in society, particularly among young people, it is useful to remember that entrepreneurship is not only a matter for individuals, but also for organizations (Miller, 1983). An organization must indeed maintain its entrepreneurial dynamic if it wants to stay alive, grow, improve its performance and renew itself. This is even more true in times of economic crisis, when the environment is often poorer in opportunities and companies are less inclined to seize them. To introduce the paper, we first review the state of the art of past works on the relationship between human resources management and organizational entrepreneurship, before presenting the articles in the dossier, and finally proposing avenues for future research on how human resources mobilization can boost the entrepreneurial behavior of firms.

This Unplugged issue of M@n@gement is dedicated to the topic of Corporate Entrepreneurship and is titled: Corporate Entrepreneurship: where are we? Where can we go from here? An international workshop was organized in Lyon on June 20-21st, 2011 and brought together about fifty researchers. The aim of this workshop was to discuss the results of recent works in Corporate Entrepreneurship research. To this end, we asked four researchers to do a state of the field and to share their vision of the rising promising research questions. The philosophy of this workshop was very much in line with that of the Unplugged series. We wanted it to be, to quote Josserand (Clegg & Starbuck, 2009), “a wild card to share their own perspective on novel ways in which to conceive of management today”. In the field of corporate entrepreneurship research, we are currently witnessing lively scientific debate around the Entrepreneurial Orientation (EO) construct and the interactions between strategy and entrepreneurship. During the workshop, we embraced the distinction between advances in science (that we make by asking good questions) and scientific discovery (that we make by questioning what we think we know). This Unplugged includes three parts:In part one, we present “The Evolution and Contributions of Corporate Entrepreneurship Research”, a state of the field of knowledge in the field. We retrace the field’s first steps and offer an agenda for research. At the intersection of strategic management and entrepreneurship lies the study of corporate entrepreneurship (CE), a phrase coined by Peterson and Burger (Peterson & Berger, 1971). CE is important for the field of general management (and thus the readers of M@n@gement) because it addresses entrepreneurship at the level of the firm (Miller, 1983), depending upon, yet going beyond, the entrepreneurial behaviors of the individuals that compose it. CE has been studied through its consequences (Guth & Ginsberg, 1990), through the prism of individual behaviors (Burgelman, 1983) and by investigating how companies organize for these activities (Kanter, 1985). The impact of national culture, meanwhile, has been studied relatively little (Hayton, George, & Zahra, 2002). Instead, the field has convened around other concepts applied to a corporate, organizational setting, such as opportunity recognition (O’Connor & Rice, 2001). Zahra et al note that the field is taking distance from the strategy literature, where CE has become overshadowed by the concept of entrepreneurial orientation, a strategic orientation akin to Market Orientation (Gotteland, Haon, & Jolibert, 2009), to embrace other questions. Our suggested research agenda first identifies the many classifications of CE that have been proposed. We note that the factors that lead to this variety have yet to be identified. Further research can fruitfully examine, amongst other topics: knowledge creation and integration, contextual factors such as national culture, markets (emerging or mature) and social entrepreneurship as well as inter-organizational manifestations of CE. The micro-foundations of these phenomena bring with them rather interesting questions: which individual behaviors lead to these organizational behaviors? How are they intertwined? How can HRM practices induce such behaviors? The keys to answering these issues, which can hopefully be offered by context, have yet to be discovered.

Studies on social capital in the field of entrepreneurship have largely highlighted its role in the success of entrepreneurial projects. Nevertheless, the prerequisites that are likely to influence its formation and development in order to promote access to external resources have been little explored. In this perspective, the research carried out in the ICT context (Information and Communication Technologies), and more specifically during the survival-development phase of new businesses, is still less numerous. In this context, this thesis attempts to understand the process by which the social competencies of the ICT entrepreneur enrich his or her social capital, and thereby facilitate access to key external resources. To achieve this objective, a conceptual model was developed based on a literature review. To test this model and the related hypotheses, we proceeded to collect data in two main stages. First, we conducted an exploratory study with ten ICT entrepreneurs, four bankers and five venture capitalists. This study allowed us, through a content analysis, to better contextualize the research, as well as to identify the essential skills and resources for the development of new creation projects. In a second step, we conducted semi-directive interviews with 120 Tunisian ICT entrepreneurs. The collected data were statistically processed using UCINET-VI, SPSS (version 18) and SMART-PLS (version 2.0) software. The results showed that three types of social skills, namely social persuasion, good graces and emotional intelligence of self, are likely to act in the context of ICT creation. The entrepreneur's social capital mediates between his or her social skills and access to key external resources, while environmental market uncertainty exerts a moderating effect. From the results obtained, we can deduce the main contributions and limitations of this research in order to propose future development perspectives.

The transfer of family businesses from one generation to the next is the main difficulty faced by families seeking to ensure the continuity of their assets. Yet, for these organizations, it is a strategic moment. Most of the studies devoted to this process of intra-family succession have focused on companies based in Anglo-Saxon countries or in Europe, and, to a lesser extent, in Asia. Moroccan SMEs, the vast majority of which are family-owned, are now faced with a large-scale succession phenomenon, which is becoming a national issue. However, the succession models developed in the existing literature are not necessarily in line with the national culture and the dominant family system in Morocco, an endogamous community system (Todd, 1999), which functions very differently from that prevailing in Anglo-Saxon or European societies. This research seeks to fill this gap. Based on nine case studies, constructed on the basis of successors' life stories, it develops a set of proposals designed to take into account the characteristics of this family system on the dynamics of succession, whether it be the process itself, governance, management of emotions or transmission of psychological property. It shows that patriarchal authority, sibling equality, and endogamy are critical dimensions of a successful succession process. This research seeks to fill this gap. Based on nine case studies, constructed on the basis of successors' life stories, it develops a set of proposals, designed to take into account the characteristics of this family system on the dynamics of succession, whether it is the process itself, governance, management of emotions or transmission of psychological property. It shows that patriarchal authority, equality between siblings, and endogamy are critical dimensions of the success of the succession process.

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The question of the entrepreneur's competence is absolutely central. However, taking this notion into account remains a persistent problem that inhibits the performance of coaching and thus hinders the development of the entrepreneurial phenomenon. In this research work, we have directed our interest towards the concept of entrepreneurial competencies in order to reposition the coach/entrepreneur relationship at the center of the coaching process. Based on all the typological classifications of entrepreneurial competencies, we chose the typology proposed by Man et al (2002) as the subject of our study. The authors propose a conceptual model that makes it possible to link the characteristics of SME entrepreneurs and the performance of their company. Based on the conviction that taking competencies into account is likely to produce new tools and support practices better adapted to the understanding and valorisation of the different dimensions of the entrepreneurial phenomenon, the problematic raised in this research is to know: to what extent does a support structure in the post-creation phase contribute to the improvement of entrepreneurs' self-perception of their entrepreneurial competencies? In order to answer this question, we have opted for a quantitative and longitudinal empirical study. In order to gain access to the field and to collect as much data as possible, our study was carried out within the framework of a partnership between the Entrepreneurship Research Center of EM Lyon Business School (CRE) and Réseau Entreprendre® (RE®). In parallel, we conducted three longitudinal studies through which we administered the same questionnaire twice, 8 months apart, to three different populations: Réseau Entreprendre® laureates (base population), coaches and unsuccessful candidates (control group). The first three waves of questionnaires were launched on February 29, 2012, the second ones towards the end of October 2012.To perform the analysis treatments, we used the linear regression approach with SPSS.11 software to test the nature of the relationships between the key variables of our study. In a second part of analysis, we conducted two comparative studies.

The objective of this dissertation is to provide new theoretical and empirical insights into the mechanisms of organizational entrepreneurship, and more specifically "entrepreneurial orientation" (EO). In order to better understand this phenomenon, this dissertation is the result of four successive efforts: - Identify what entrepreneurial orientation is by distinguishing it from what it is not - Understand how the "EO" construct fits into the major models of organizational entrepreneurship - Offer a critical discussion by synthesizing and mapping existing issues, revealing that there are in fact at least four conceptualizations behind "EO," among them Miller's (1983) initial, ignored or misunderstood conceptualization. - To continue with Miller's intention, I propose a sie of dexono firms according to their OE gestalt, as well as the specific characteristics of each configuration. Through a better understanding of the phenomenon of organizational entrepreneurship, this thesis proposes to contribute to the literature in entrepreneurship, strategic management, and management.

The purpose of our PhD project is to present a better understanding of the role of corporate culture and the psychological profile of the manager in the entrepreneurial orientation (EO) of French SMEs. The nature of the research problem remains original in the French-speaking literature. Indeed, research on EO has tended to be concentrated mainly in the Anglo-Saxon literature. The main interests of our thesis are: 1) to highlight specific actions that would help develop a culture favorable to entrepreneurship. 2) to encourage the vocation of managers in their entrepreneurial approach. 3) to better perceive the determinants of the economic and financial performance of entrepreneurial firms. 4) to specify the characteristics of French SMEs through the configuration approach. To meet these objectives, we constructed a specific main question: To what extent do the corporate culture and the psychological profile of the manager affect the entrepreneurial orientation of French SMEs and their performance? To carry out this research, we opted for a quantitative empirical study through a questionnaire administered to SME managers of two chambers of commerce: the Chambre Régionale de Commerce et d'Industrie du Nord-Pas de Calais and the Chambre de Commerce et d'Industrie du Beaujolais. We were able to collect 123 complete responses. To carry out the analysis, we used the linear regression approach with the STATA.11 software to test the nature of the relationships between the key variables of our study. In a second part of the analysis, we used the configurations approach with the hierarchical ascending components method. Regarding the first hypothesis, the results of the quantitative empirical study show that the entrepreneurial culture and the group culture are associated with the innovation, proactivity and risk-taking capacity of the firm. Conversely, the hierarchical culture is negatively associated with this triple capacity. The second hypothesis concerning the psychological profile of the leader yields rather unexpected results regarding the effect of the leader's external control field on EO. Leaders who have an external control field seem to contribute positively to the EO process. We were also able to show that these leaders lead their companies to achieve better performance. The leader's need for achievement is also related to the firm's orientation toward entrepreneurial activities. As for the third hypothesis, we were able to show in our research that the entrepreneurial activities of the company contribute to the improvement of its economic and financial performance. In a second part of this study, we tested our conceptual model with the configuration approach. Our objective was to propose a classification of firms according to the degree of EO intensity. The analysis of the hierarchical ascending components allowed us to reveal three forms of business configuration: 1) entrepreneurial businesses, 2) traditional businesses and 3) emerging businesses.

This thesis is devoted on the one hand to the conceptualization of the entrepreneurial mindset and on the other hand to the identification of the factors of its development at the university. The theoretical study led us to consider the entrepreneurial spirit as a mental process composed of a set of attitudes and feelings of competence favorable to an entrepreneurial orientation. The university, along with other socialization factors, could develop it. And this by evolving towards an entrepreneurial university through the adoption of an entrepreneurial orientation. As a result, it is led to adopt entrepreneurial practices both in its internal and external environment. We conducted a preliminary investigation through semi-structured interviews with 24 Tunisian university officials in order to explore, identify and determine the factors of development of entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial spirit in the Tunisian university. Moreover, the hypothetical-inductive approach allowed us to superimpose the theoretical propositions from the literature with the main results of the survey. This allowed us to refine and enrich the conceptual model through the addition of new variables: - The type of university influences the development of entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial spirit. - The importance of the role of the university leader in the development of entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial spirit at the university: he or she is called upon to become an entrepreneur. - The importance of redesigning the study plan. - At the level of teaching entrepreneurship: importance of original and playful pedagogies and those based on ICT and the training of trainers in entrepreneurship. - Integration of communication with and between students and motivation of the latter. - Importance of establishing university/university partnerships and more contact with society. The proposed conceptual model refined by the exploratory study can serve as a reference or starting point for further research aimed at studying the factors of development of entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial spirit at the university. It can also serve as a tool for universities wishing to initiate and implement a policy to promote entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial spirit within their institutions. The originality of this thesis is to offer a new conception of entrepreneurship: a state of mind, a field of teaching and education and a possible career option. Thus, its value is to contribute to the conceptualization of the entrepreneurial spirit, to feed the reflection around the factors of development of entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial spirit at the university and to approach new concepts: entrepreneurial university and entrepreneurial orientation of the university. Keywords: University, entrepreneurship, entrepreneurial spirit, conceptualization, entrepreneurship education, development factors, entrepreneurial orientation.

The literature review on family businesses highlights a series of conclusions concerning the lack of research on the integration of the successor, the post-succession phase and the course of action of the successor. In view of these findings, we have attempted in this research to provide elements of response concerning this phase of disengagement/commitment through the parent/child relationship and the role of the predecessor. This research makes it possible to put forward the determining role of the predecessor on the continuity of the family business and on the attitude of the successor. We propose four attitudes of the successor following his integration of the family business. These attitudes are late independence, unrestrained independence, forced conservatism and agreed conservatism. We also highlight factors that may block or facilitate the successor's integration into the unlisted French family business.

The use of active methods to teach entrepreneurship is currently strongly supported by international political institutions and educational establishments. Among the scientific contributions that promote action learning, the theory of experiential learning shows that the acquisition and transformation of experience occupy a central place in the construction of the knowledge sought. The use of this theory also raises the question of its influence on the cognitive functioning of the learner and the construction of his or her own learning strategies, the development of which is conditioned by mental activities that call upon cognitive education and metacognition. The work carried out in the thesis produces two major contributions. The first is characterized by the proposal of a conceptual model of experiential learning applied to the field of entrepreneurship that integrates and adapts the contributions of four essential theories for understanding entrepreneurial action. The second contribution is illustrated by the realization of a survey carried out with 423 students in Lyon to know to what extent an experiential learning module that mobilizes the concept of problem-situation in an entrepreneurial training acts on the perception of the students of their own metacognitive attitudes? The results obtained show, on the one hand, the significant influence of experiential learning in the change of students' perception and, on the other hand, explain the major role played by metacognition and experiential learning in entrepreneurship education.

The individual-project couple is at the heart of a dynamic entrepreneurial system in continuous interaction with its environment. In order to ensure its survival and development, the creator is regularly led to federate around him a network of actors that allows to feed this system with energy and resources that it lacks. The research question we are trying to answer in this work is the following: In a complex and dynamic entrepreneurial situation, how does an entrepreneur build and develop his network, in order to acquire the resources necessary for the success-development of his innovative entrepreneurial project? In order to answer this question, we have mobilized the actor-network theory (Callon and Latour, 1986) as the methodology that guides our research. According to this theory, the success of an innovation is not linked solely to the genius of an individual, nor to the intrinsic value of his or her project, but is above all the result of an effort provided by an unprecedented association of actors (human and non-human) that gradually gathers around the individual/project couple. By adopting a qualitative, longitudinal methodology, we have followed, over a period of two years, the dynamics of the construction of the entrepreneurial network of six innovative business creation projects. We paid particular attention to the role of technical artifacts in our work.

The purpose of this thesis is to examine aspects of psychological resilience as it helps us understand the entrepreneurial process, accounting for both the personal characteristics of entrepreneurs and the process of entrepreneuring. The thesis underscores the concept of “resilience”, especially as a way of rebounding from major personal traumas and as an important part of initially engaging in entrepreneurial activity. A central question is: in what ways is entrepreneuring a rebound reaction to internal tensions?This thesis builds on theory and research in the field of intrapersonal resilience (psychology) and entrepreneurship (business) focusing more on studies that highlight the initial process of entrepreneurship, the intention model, planned behavior, and a specific concept, known as “displacement” ( Model of Shapero). The intention to create and the energy and determination to build a project or enterprise may well be connected to the personal need to re-invent oneself after some major life shock. It may be an act of psychological resilience. Critical to the thesis is to develop a model that links resilience and entrepreneurship. Having made this connection, the model will contribute to perspectives and practices in entrepreneurship. Several propositions for future research will also result.

Entrepreneurship is an emerging field of research structured around four paradigms. The one that is retained in our work is the individual-creation of new value dialogue. The first part of this work presents the key concepts of the thesis: entrepreneurship, innovative business creation and individual commitment. In this part, we adopt and adapt the modeling of the process of enterprise creation proposed by Bruyat (1993). From an interpretative and comprehensive perspective, the second part deals with the epistemological and methodological aspects that echo our central question concerning the dynamics of the individual commitment of an engineer in the process of creating an innovative company. Our contribution concerns the longitudinal follow-up of the dynamics of the commitment of a dozen Tunisian engineers who triggered their entrepreneurial process in a specific context that is the Tunisian context.

In this thesis we examine the topic of risk perception in the decision to start a business from three different angles: (1) The antecedents of risk perception, i.e., the situational and personal variables that condition it and the cognitive processes that affect it. (2) The very definition of risk perception in the context of business creation, with its various dimensions. (3) The way in which different cognitive approaches and perceptions of risk translate into the behavior of entrepreneurs during the start-up process. Chapters 1, 2 and 3 focused on the first perspective. In chapter 1, we examine the weight of a "classic" personal variable, risk propensity, vis-à-vis the weight of two situational variables that are supposed to condition the "framing" of the situation: the description of the option to create and the employment situation. In chapter 2, we are interested in the cognitive processes that affect the way in which additional information on a creation project is assimilated and translated into terms of risk perception. In Chapter 3, we complement the first perspective adopted in the thesis by exploring models of entrepreneurial intentions from a risk perspective. Chapter 4 focuses on the second perspective adopted. In this chapter, we present the development and first empirical test of a new scale for measuring the perception of risk associated with business creation. Finally, Chapter 5 adopts the third perspective, examining how risk perception translates into the entrepreneurial behavior of "real" entrepreneurs. Through 40 interviews, we identify two cognitive approaches used by entrepreneurs in the way they perceive and react to different entrepreneurial risks: intuition and analysis.

We focus our research on the entrepreneurial process and more precisely on its trigger phase. Based on Bruyat's model (1993), we take up his definition of the triggering phase: the individual seriously considers creating, he devotes time and resources to his research, and he acts. In order to model this triggering phase, we use two main notions (intention and displacement) as well as different works: Shapero and Sokol (1982), Ajzen (1991) and Krueger and Carsrud (1993). The starting point of our research is the database created by Fayolle (1996). Two groups of engineers interest us. The first group consists of non-entrepreneurial engineers who, at the time of the survey, had the objective of becoming entrepreneurs in the short term. The second subset includes non-entrepreneurial engineers who have never had the objective of becoming an entrepreneur. Our methodology consists of two parts: a quantitative survey and a qualitative study. We test the two antecedents of triggering retained in our conceptual modeling. We also identify eight career paths. We then explore each pathway in more detail through semi-structured interviews. Two decisive dimensions emerge from the analysis of the results. First, the triggering paths are constructed differently over time. Secondly, the intensity and consequences of possible displacements are perceived in different ways by the individuals. This leads us to propose a mapping that allows us to identify four triggering processes.

An increasing number of academic studies point out the limits of the methodologies usually used to support business creation. As these are based on sequential and normative approaches, they impose a sequencing that is poorly adapted to the individual dynamics of a non-linear entrepreneurial process. Taking individual cognitive factors into account is a research avenue that could contribute to the improvement of support systems. This thesis deals with the relationship of influence between the cognitive schemas of the entrepreneur and the course of the entrepreneurial process. To this end, the concept of social representation is mobilized and applied to the central ideal object of the process, the Enterprise object. A longitudinal qualitative approach was chosen in order to study four cases of business creation, over periods ranging from one to four years, completed by a comparative analysis of the representations of the entrepreneur-companion for one of the cases. The link between social representation and the entrepreneurial process was analyzed through the construction of cognitive maps. The results confirmed the importance of the representation of the enterprise object in the strategic choices made and its potential influence on the performance of the created enterprise. One of the theoretical contributions of this work lies in the proposal of a model of the entrepreneurial process articulated around the variable "representation of the enterprise object". From a managerial point of view, the basis of an iterative methodology of accompaniment, aiming at updating and then analyzing the representation of the creator, is established.

The thesis provides new data to better understand the entrepreneurial behavior of French engineering graduates. In particular, we attempt to provide answers to two essential questions. The first question concerns the identification of factors that influence (positively or negatively) the entrepreneurial propensity of engineers. It amounts to questioning the identity and characteristics of entrepreneurial engineers. The second question aims to uncover the different pathways or routes that lead engineers to become entrepreneurs. This question leads to another: that of the possible identification of profiles of entrepreneurial engineers, which profiles may have an importance in terms of the types of managerial behavior developed and the types of companies created or taken over. The analytical framework we have chosen is an "interactionist" model which, in order to explain the entrepreneurial behavior of engineers, takes into consideration both the "strategic intetion" of the actor and a logic of action which results from the encounter between an actor, grasped in all its social dimensions, and a situation shaped by the weight of institutions, norms, and power relationships, referring more precisely to the work of H. Le Marois and P. Bernoux, we propose to give the "engineer's action system" three interacting poles: the engineer as actor, his resources and his space of opportunities. They are the basis of the engineer's entrepreneurial logic of action as we conceive it.