TROMMETTER Michel

According to forecasts by the International Energy Agency (IEA), renewable energies should account for one third of electricity production in four years, ahead of coal. Michel Trommetter, economist and research director at Inrae, has participated in various studies on the links between renewable energy and biodiversity. For the #ScienceSustainable campaign, the researcher went back over the main issues related to this theme.

Research highlights: Funding forest management with subsidies from carbon offsetters is a well-documented mechanism in tropical regions. This article provides complementary insights into the use of voluntary offset contracts in temperate forests. Background and objectives: The mitigation of greenhouse emissions has become a major global issue, leading to changes in forest management to increase the capacity of forests to store carbon. This can lead to conflicts of use with other forest ecosystem services such as timber production or biodiversity conservation. Our main goal is to describe collective actions to fund carbon-oriented forestry with subsidies from carbon offsetters and to analyze how their governance and functioning prevent conflicts pertaining to multi-functionality. Materials and methods: We assembled an interdisciplinary research team comprising two ecologists, a social scientist, and an economist. Drawing on a conceptual framework of ecosystem services, social interdependencies, and collective action, we based our qualitative analysis on semi-structured interviews from two French case studies. Results: Carbon-oriented intermediary forest organizations offer offset contracts to private firms and public bodies. Communication is geared toward the mitigation outcomes of the contracts as well as their beneficial side effects in providing the ecosystem services of interest to the offsetters. Subsidies then act as a financial lever to fund carbon-oriented forestry operations. Scientific committees and reporting methodologies serve as environmental, social, and economic safeguards. Conclusions: These new intermediary forest organizations use efficient forest operations and evaluation methodologies to improve forest carbon storage. Their main innovation lies in their collective governance rooted in regional forest social-ecological systems. Their consideration of multi-functionality and socioeconomic issues can be seen as an obstacle to rapid development, but they ensure sustainability and avoid conflicts between producers and beneficiaries of forest ecosystem services. Attention must be paid to interactions with broader spatial and temporal carbon policies.

In the manner of an "appetizer", the book "Les mots (maux) de la biodiversité" presents a small number of words that allow us to question our relationship with biodiversity and the way in which its preservation can be understood, while the living world is collapsing around us (IPBES, 2019). Members and friends of the ORÉE Biodiversity-Economy Working Group express in this collection their perceptions and reflections "in words" on the "ills" of biodiversity, inviting everyone to question the way our society approaches the vital issue of biodiversity preservation. Organized in the manner of an unfinished alphabet book, beautifully illustrated, this little book questions, through the testimony of various actors, some of the "evils/words" of biodiversity. The terms artificialization, goods, capital, sustainable development, economy, governance, indicators, territories, values and others are found in this book, and their polysemy is thus revealed. The aim is to help those who use these words find the right balance to start talking to each other, between humans, about biodiversity in order to take in hand the challenges of its preservation.

Following a survey of farmers in the south of France, the first results show that, for a better management (on a genetic basis) of these breeds, the aids to farmers must be better targeted and effectively depend on genetic management activities of these breeds. Otherwise, this aid can lead to the cessation of activity on these farms or to the substitution of local breeds by animals crossed with more productive breeds (erosion of genetic diversity). A second type of result shows that, even if the incentives can be monetary (in the form of subsidies), farmers are in favor of other forms of recognition, such as certification (AOC, geographical appellations), which can ensure the sustainability of the project through binding specifications on the use of species (management of genetic diversity in crossbreeding and selection). (To be published in: Agricoltura Mediterranea).

In this paper the author discusses the fact that economists define optimal IP rights as a continuum of options in three dimensions: height, breadth and length. At the operational level he sees the impossibility of multiplying rights indefinitely (due to prohibitive transaction costs), as well as the use of a limited number of IP tools which have led to the implementation of flexibilities. These flexibilities are designed to limit certain perverse effects of rights ill-adjusted to the characteristics of some economic sectors (agricultural biotechnologies, pharmacy, etc.). In this context, the author analyses how these flexibilities are implemented in TRIPS and TRIPS agreements and he studies the consequences for Developing Countries.

Generally speaking, the economic analysis of inter-temporal investment choices made by a company aims to determine, according to the constraints on the deployment of the activity, an optimal investment rhythm. Within this general problem of inter-periodic investments, the article specifically examines the sequential programming of investments in an uncertain decision universe. The uncertainty considered relates to the choice of public management mechanisms for the environmental and sanitary risks that could be imputed to the products of these investments, or even to the investments themselves. To account for this uncertainty about the value of the project, the model considers a random variable called "social perception of the investment". This variable can influence public choices of risk management, and the choices made by the company and the public authorities. It can thus call into question the investment program adopted ex ante by the decision-makers in extenso, and affect the final surplus that the consumer gets from the innovation. The analysis is conducted to account for the situation encountered by an entrepreneur who undertakes an investment project to produce genetically modified organisms (GMOs).

Biotechnology is an emerging sector based on the creation of research-intensive SMEs. While some SMEs are growing rapidly, most remain small, even those created several years ago. What are the conditions for the development of the biotechnology sector? What are the conditions for the development of these companies? Studies on the development of high-tech SMEs have focused on business models in which entrepreneurs anticipate the growth of their company to persuade venture capitalists to invest in their innovation projects. The firms, anticipating the global market to industrialize their innovations and the introduction on the financial market (stock exchange), must guarantee the first investors to make profits commensurate with the risks they have taken. However, this model is only one of the possible development models for biotechnologies. Some companies do not grow exponentially and target local markets. Moreover, not all companies are destined to be listed on the financial markets. This article, based on a survey of 60 French biotech companies, identifies two models of companies according to their development trajectories and their characteristics.

Faced with the erosion of biodiversity, and more particularly of local cultivars, the ex situ conservation of plant genetic resources is advocated, but not necessarily achieved. Moreover, this conservation is mainly envisaged for potential use in the face of an uncertain future. Thus, from a sequential modeling in an uncertain future, the author tries, on the basis of simulations, to define the best criterion for the conservation of genetic resources: the maximization of the expected utility (cost/benefit analysis) or the minimization of the risks facing an uncertain future (precautionary principle).

The various consequences of a decision on the environment (exogenous or endogenous nature of the environment), on the decision-maker's information system (learning linked to the decision) and on subsequent decisions (future field of choice) lead to the definition of three types of flexibility whose effects on the decision may be antagonistic. The concept of flexibility thus becomes particularly ambiguous, as shown by the two examples of the conservation of plant genetic resources and progressive decontamination in research on genetically modified organisms. In complex cases, attempts to define an option value of flexibility are therefore doomed to failure and it is preferable to value the characteristics of a decision globally, via an objective function calculated over the whole decision tree, such as a sequential net present value (NPV) for financial flows.

The erosion of biodiversity and local cultivars promotes the ex situ conservation of plant genetic resources. This conservation is considered mainly for potential use in the face of an uncertain future. Thus, on the basis of sequential modelling in an uncertain future, the author shows, on the one hand, that the value of a collection is not so much linked to the value of the genes it contains (the marginal value of a gene being zero) as to the probability of finding an interesting gene in it (absence of substitutability, etc.) and, on the other hand, that the value of a collection is not so much linked to the value of the genes it contains as to the probability of finding an interesting gene in it (absence of substitution, etc.).On the other hand, on the basis of simulations, it defines the best decision-making criterion for the conservation of genetic resources: maximization of the expected utility (cost/benefit analysis) or minimization of the risks in the face of an uncertain future (precautionary principle).

Knowledge sharing is crucial for the success of most R&D cooperations. This paper investigates the best conditions for fostering knowledge sharing in R&D cooperation and looks at how the establishment of Public-Private R&D Partnerships (PPP in R&D) could be a useful tool for this purpose. In this end, it proposes a theoretical model, related to the R&D cooperation literature, that takes into consideration the impacts of firms outside R&D cooperation and the presence of two kinds of spillover: a technology spillover and a product rivalry effect. The model shows that both spillovers can affect knowledge sharing negatively, and that PPP in R&D can be useful to promote knowledge sharing. First, public authorities can choose partners that will facilitate efficient knowledge sharing. Second, to avoid the negative impacts of spillovers on behavior in terms of knowledge sharing, public laboratories should be used as intermediaries for the prior and strategic knowledge of firms. Public labs can use the prior knowledge of firms to innovate, and then spread this innovation among the partners of the PPP, without spreading the prior knowledge of the firms.

The biotechnology industry can be represented by different activities and different strategies for company growth. These strategies will have an impact on the ownership structure and the quality of the capital providers to be mobilized, and therefore on the corporate governance mechanisms to be put in place. We are moving from a system of government linked to entrepreneurial firms with classic information, to a dynamic system of government (anticipating the sequentiality of the different phases of the search) in which the firm is dependent on financing at each stage. Qualitative information, particularly in terms of research and development, is therefore crucial. The numerous biotechnology firms, with no turnover and less than fifty employees, are medium-sized firms in terms of a process of separation of control and management rights and an opening up of the capital that favours the transferability of rights.

The COVID-19 pandemic reminds us of the importance of health problems at the interface between humans, animals and the environment: nearly two thirds of human infectious diseases come from pathogens shared with wild or domestic animals. While the number of people suffering from infectious diseases is decreasing, especially in Western regions, paradoxically the number of infectious epidemics continues to grow. The role played by the degradation of ecosystems, in particular deforestation, in the phenomenon of "jumping the species barrier" is questioned, as well as, more generally, that of our lifestyles (diets and food chains, trade...). Thus, this pandemic suggests not only to re-evaluate existing public policies of sanitary control and management, but also to see how they should be completed at the level of economic behavior orientation. In order to prevent future epidemics and reduce their impacts, it is important to understand the mechanisms that generate epidemics and the increase in their frequency or severity, and in particular the extent to which global changes and anthropogenic factors modify the situation. If it is difficult, even illusory, to prevent animals from developing diseases that can be transmitted to humans, and if it is necessary to control their appearance and to manage the sanitary and economic consequences, one of the ways to reduce the risks of epidemics would be to act upstream. In this respect, the preservation of natural habitats, the reduction of meat consumption, the reduction of the size of intensive livestock farms and the cessation of the marketing (legal or not) of wild animal meat would constitute coherent and effective measures for tomorrow's "one health" public health policies.

The COVID-19 pandemic reminds us of the importance of health problems at the interface between humans, animals and the environment: nearly two thirds of human infectious diseases come from pathogens shared with wild or domestic animals. While the number of people suffering from infectious diseases is decreasing, especially in Western regions, paradoxically the number of infectious epidemics continues to grow. The role played by the degradation of ecosystems, in particular deforestation, in the phenomenon of "jumping the species barrier" is questioned, as well as, more generally, that of our lifestyles (diets and food chains, trade...). Thus, this pandemic suggests not only to re-evaluate existing public policies of sanitary control and management, but also to see how they should be completed at the level of economic behavior orientation. In order to prevent future epidemics and reduce their impacts, it is important to understand the mechanisms that generate epidemics and the increase in their frequency or severity, and in particular the extent to which global changes and anthropogenic factors modify the situation. If it is difficult, even illusory, to prevent animals from developing diseases that can be transmitted to humans, and if it is necessary to control their appearance and to manage the sanitary and economic consequences, one of the ways to reduce the risks of epidemics would be to act upstream. In this respect, the preservation of natural habitats, the reduction of meat consumption, the reduction of the size of intensive livestock farms and the cessation of the marketing (legal or not) of wild animal meat would constitute coherent and effective measures for tomorrow's "one health" public health policies.

Animal genetic improvement takes very diverse forms. This diversity is observed between species, between countries and over time. Between species, the general biological characteristics of the species are different and play a structuring role. For example, the way in which selection is organized differs according to whether the animal takes several months or several years to reach reproductive age, or whether the offspring of an animal are counted in units, tens or hundreds. Depending on the species and the country, different forms of organization can be observed, some giving more weight to the market to define the incentives for research, others favoring cooperative or collective structures. Over time, these forms of organization may evolve, particularly as a result of technical progress: for example, the organization of breeding may be completely redefined by implementing artificial insemination or genomic selection. The objective of this chapter is to present the diversity of economic models of animal genetic improvement and to explain the economic logic underlying these organizations. As much as possible, we rely on existing social science literature. Our analysis focuses on three animal species: cattle, pigs and chickens. The forms of organization of genetic improvement for these three animal species differ, thus highlighting contrasting economic logics. Nevertheless, these three examples do not exhaust the diversity of organizational forms of animal genetic improvement. The first part of this chapter is devoted to a presentation of the organization and historical economic logic for each of the three species we have considered in this chapter. The second part focuses on recent developments induced by regulatory changes and technological developments.

Transformability is increasingly promoted as a way of moving societies toward more sustainable futures in the era of the Anthropocene, mostly because the concept of resilience has fallen short in many instances where impacts on social-ecological systems are continuous, varied, and usually unknown. While such transformations can play a crucial role in improving the sustainability of social-ecological systems, they may lead to unexpected and undesirable outcomes. This literature review on social-ecological transformability and wicked problems seeks to shed light on and acknowledge some of the limitations of transformability regarding unforeseen conditions. We argue that wicked problems arise in transformation initiatives in the presence of high complexity, deep uncertainty, deep conflicts, and divergence among stakeholders, as well as scale mismatches concerning spatial, temporal, and institutional processes. Our findings may explain why some transformation initiatives fail to generate expected changes on the ground, mainly in two cases: (a) a polarized configuration that maintains the status quo of the system to be transformed and (b) an unforeseen transformation that causes the system to lurch from crisis to crisis. To conclude, we recommend using diagnostic questions to prevent wicked problems in social-ecological transformations.

This paper proposes a common analysis for a large set of multilateral agreements that are used to collectively manage intellectual property in industries as different as biotechnologies or information technologies. It discusses how these agreements, based on existing intellectual property institutions, can encourage innovation either by facilitating technology transfers or by improving the organization of collective innovation processes. In the first part we explain how the collective management of intellectual property rights can be used to facilitate arm?s length technology transfers. Its objective is then to facilitate the access to information about variety, to reduce negotiation costs and to optimize the management of prices. In the second part we explain how the collective management of intellectual property rights can be used to improve the innovation production processes by proposing a wide set of organizational structures ranging from centralized organizations that rely heavily on planning, to decentralized organizations that use incentives to motivate participants. As a conclusion, we highlight new challenges for competition policy generated by those tools.

The negative environmental externalities of agricultural activities (pollution, reduction of biodiversity) are now better analyzed. They justify agri-environmental policies aimed at reducing their negative consequences, or even generating positive externalities. In the search for a new coherence between these activities and the environment, contractual measures should play a major role, mainly in areas where preservation has a high social value, but requires a considerable change in the operating system of the farmers concerned. This paper attempts to model and simulate contractual incentives in a bounded area, characterized by a given type of externality and heterogeneous farmers who have different interests in the contract. To determine the best contract terms, it is therefore necessary to define models of rational behavior for the actors, the principal (the government) and the agents (the farmers), and to simulate the results relative to the evolution of the principal's control variables (the various incentives). The complexity of this problem requires sequential modeling, which is essential to capture the dynamic interactions between the agents' decisions, the multiple hazards, and to integrate the agents' learning obtained in the first period of the contract.

Adapting forest management to climate change is a key issue, as forests are crucial for mitigation policies and the provision of many ecosystem services. Understanding the magnitude of the progress made in this respect can help shape further adaptation developments and avoid the putative maladaptive side effects of forest management evolutions. Here, we aim to bridge the knowledge gap of adaptation implementation in French forests. To stay as close as possible to concrete changes, we conducted semi-structured interviews with foresters in two study areas that differed in the intensity of their forest management approaches. Our findings highlight unprecedented aspects of adaptations: (i) adaptation focuses on productive ecosystem services at the expense of other essential services such as water supply or natural habitats. (ii) adaptations rely on technical changes in forest management and do not deal with climate impacts through organizational or economic tools. and (iii) envisaging ecological processes through adaptations is instrumental and limited to small spatial and temporal scales. Our results also extend the existing body of knowledge to the framework of forest management: (i) climate change is not the main driver of forestry changes. (ii) extreme events are windows of opportunity to stimulate adaptive changes. and (iii) proactive adaptation to unexperienced hazards is very weak. We argue that to be as effective as possible, climate change adaptation in forestry should implement complementary organizational and economic changes in addition to the necessary technical evolutions.

When we talk about ecology, we talk about changes. But there have always been changes. However, the sensitive question is that of the capacity of ecosystems, particularly those that are now anthropized, to adapt: the capacity to mitigate the effects at the global and local levels and the capacity to adapt "locally" to the local effects of global change. Indeed, the capacity to adapt locally depends on the speed and amplitude of change.

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When we talk about ecology, we talk about changes. But there have always been changes. However, the sensitive question is that of the capacity of ecosystems, in particular those that are now anthropized, to adapt: the capacity to mitigate the effects at the global and local levels and the capacity to adapt "locally" to the local effects of global change. Indeed, the capacity to adapt locally depends on the speed and amplitude of change.

No summary available.

The socio-ecological trajectories of forests are considerably dependent on the silvicultural practices chosen by their managers. However, these management choices are likely to evolve in order to take into account the impacts of climate change on forest environments. The objective of the following work is therefore to understand the changes in forest management induced by adaptations to climate disruption (CCA). It focuses on metropolitan France, where forests are one of the most important ecosystems - they cover three quarters of the surface. Three research themes were used to address this issue: (1) the diversification of CCAs (which forest ecosystem goods and services (EGS) are targeted? (2) the importance given by foresters to technical approaches, in comparison with reflections on the socio-economic organization of forest management . and finally (3) the integration of ecological dynamics in the design and implementation of adaptations to climate change.Chapter 1: Inventory, through field surveys, of CCAs in private and public forests. The adaptations identified concerned only a few of the many forestry EGS, the most important of which were wood production, carbon storage and preservation of natural habitats. These adaptations were primarily implemented in response to climatic hazards already experienced by foresters. Above all, these adaptations were the result of changes in silvicultural techniques, in which humans intervene in the forest socio-ecosystem, modifying its natural components.Chapter 2: I studied the public funding of research projects dealing simultaneously with climate change and forestry. I showed that one of the causes of the lack of consideration of the socio-economic aspects of CCA comes from the pre-eminence of technical research, with very little focus on socio-cultural, regulatory or support ecosystem services.Chapter 3: Back to the field, for a case study on payment for carbon storage. I have highlighted how the diversification of income generated by this type of innovation is an indirect way for foresters to adapt to climate change, by decreasing their dependence on wood production that is highly threatened by climate disruption. Chapter 4: Synthesis of the learnings from the previous chapters, through the creation of a participatory forest management simulation. In Foster Forest, various forest management actors are immersed in a scenario of strong climate change. In order to carry out their own mission, they have a range of silvicultural practices at their disposal, based on standard practices, but which are not sufficient to cope with climate disturbances. To compensate, the participants are free to propose changes to the rules of the game in order to evolve the socio-economic organization of their forestry activities. The ten or so applications of this participatory simulation, in different French regions, confirmed the results of the previous chapters. The games played also shed light on the importance of territorial coordination structures in the development of adaptation projects, at scales that are complementary to the sole "plot" vision.

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How can we assess the social cost of not maintaining biodiversity and ecosystems in a satisfactory state, particularly in the context of climate change? How can we design regulations and instruments to avoid this? This note provides an overview of these two questions. In particular, it emphasizes the maintenance of self-regulating services, without which ecosystems may not be able to provide the services we expect of them. It also stresses the need for coherence in public policies and an integrated vision that takes full account of the behavior and role of private actors.

France is highly covered by forests, upon which rely numerous jobs and natural habitats. Therefore, the country adopted a strategy of adaptation to climate change, leaning on a rich silviculture history to offer foresters various means to adapt (rotation shortening, species mixes, …). Still, different adaptations can be interesting in a given forest, depending on the trade-off between ecosystem services: timber production, biodiversity conservation, water quality preservation, . Hence, how do French foresters decide of the adaptation to implement? What are the impacts of their choices on biodiversity? The following explores how adaptation in the field occurs-a complementary approach of providing better understanding of the impacts of climate change on forest biodiversity. It analyses how biodiversity is included in field adaptations, and how this concords with guidelines of sustainable forestry. Results come from semi-structured interviews led in two French forests differing in anthropization, making use of ecology and geographic sciences. The analysis discriminates two non-exclusive positions on biodiversity: "utilitarists" adapting thanks to biodiversity and "conservationists" adapting for biodiversity. Utilitarists rely on species selection or introduction of allochtonous species to resist windstorms or biological attacks for instance, a potential threat for local populations. On the opposite, conservationists favor Darwinian adaptation over interventionist strategies. Conservationists would for example prioritize spontaneous evolution, at the risk of tree species running short of time because of the speed of climate change. These results are integrated in a wider project including natural parks managers for decision-taking in forest management.

The effects of climate change on coastal risk factors are increasing due to both rising sea levels and increasingly intense coastal floodings. However, these changes are only just beginning to be incorporated into planning strategies for coastal economies and land use in France. Recent coastal storms marked the turning point, and public authorities have now started to revise coastal management legislation, stating that the managed retreat of settlements and infrastructure is the preferred strategy to adapt to climate change. To date, this managed retreat has almost exclusively been discussed in relation to the current political, social, and economic obstacles that make it difficult to relocate equipment and houses inland. Here, we add to this discussion by depicting how the careful ecological restoration of dunes and salt marshes on land made available by managed retreat could overcome some of these obstacles. First, we describe three possible strategies to adapt to sea‐level rise as well as the maladaptation of the current strategy. Then, we focus on the limitations and advantages of ecological restoration in terms of managed retreat and vice versa. Finally, we depict how a new kind of land lease, introduced in draft legislation, can help tackle the multitemporal and multispatial issues that currently hinder managed retreat.

Article 2 of the Convention on Biological Diversity, adopted at the Rio Conference in 1992, defines biodiversity as the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part: this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems. However, environmental policies, which have developed since the second half of the 20th century, have not focused much on biodiversity and ecosystem services, with the exception of the protection of emblematic species (lynx, bear.), the management of fisheries resources and remarkable ecosystems, such as national parks.

How can we assess the social cost of not maintaining biodiversity and ecosystems in a satisfactory state, particularly in the context of climate change? How can we design regulations and instruments to avoid this? This note provides an overview of these two questions. In particular, it emphasizes the maintenance of self-regulating services, without which ecosystems may not be able to provide the services we expect of them. It also stresses the need for coherence in public policies and an integrated vision that takes full account of the behavior and role of private actors.

No summary available.

Article 2 of the Convention on Biological Diversity, adopted at the Rio Conference in 1992, defines biodiversity as the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part: this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems. However, environmental policies, which have developed since the second half of the 20th century, have not focused much on biodiversity and ecosystem services, with the exception of the protection of emblematic species (lynx, bear.), the management of fisheries resources and remarkable ecosystems, such as national parks.

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The installation of renewable marine energies is carried out in compliance with French environmental legislation. The Avoid-Reduce-Compensate (ERC) sequence is thus applied in order to achieve no net loss of biodiversity. The objective of this thesis is to question the effectiveness of this sequence, and more particularly that of ecological compensation, as an instrument for internalizing and combating the erosion of marine biodiversity. A qualitative empirical approach was thus implemented to (i) identify the ecological and societal factors as well as their theoretical characteristics that should allow offsetting to achieve the objective of no net loss of biodiversity and (ii) check whether these conditions are verified in practice in the case of offshore wind power in Europe and France. The analysis highlights the legal, institutional, methodological and societal challenges to be met in order for ecological offsets to achieve their objective. Based on this observation, a multi-criteria evaluation is proposed in order to strengthen the avoidance and reduction stages and finally to better define the needs of ecological compensation at sea. The analysis also highlights a shift from compensation based on strict ecological equivalence to compensation based on relaxed ecological equivalence. Offsetting actions tend to be more general and/or more directed towards ecosystem services than towards ecosystem components. Combined with accompanying measures, they can help facilitate the social acceptability of a development project.

Faced with the stakes of sustainable development, the challenges imposed by climate change and the erosion of biodiversity must be taken into consideration coherently. To limit our impact on the climate, we must drastically rethink our relationship with energy and, first and foremost, what is known as carbon-intensive energy. Three complementary and insperable courses of action should allow us to reach such objectives : firstly, energy sobriety. the best energy being energy which is not used, this challenges our behaviour . next, energy efficiency which stimulates techniques and lastly, the use of sustainable energy wich we focus in this document. This document considers and defines this sustainable energy for current issues. This sustainable energy groups togethers "sustainable" renewable energy and recoverable energy (R&RE). This is an opportunity to combine the issues of climate and biodiversity to help us approach the boundaries of what is possible for a sustainable development energy transition.

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Encouraged by the fight against climate change, the development of sustainable energies raises major issues for the protection of biodiversity. The note presented by ORÉE is based on the principle that the protection of biodiversity and the energy transition are two key and interconnected notions. Based on the views of experts, feedback from economic actors in the energy transition and detailed explanatory diagrams, the note: - sets out the context and socio-territorial issues of the energy transition - defines sustainable energies as including renewable energies under conditions of sustainability and recovered energies (RE&R). - studies the links between RE&R and biodiversity through examples such as biomass-wood energy, hydroelectricity, onshore wind energy, photovoltaic energy, marine energy and recovered energy. - discusses possible solutions for a change in energy production methods that are compatible with the protection of biodiversity and the resilience of ecosystems.

Encouraged by the fight against climate change, the development of sustainable energies raises major issues for the protection of biodiversity. The note presented by ORÉE is based on the principle that the protection of biodiversity and the energy transition are two key and interconnected notions. Based on the views of experts, feedback from economic actors in the energy transition and detailed explanatory diagrams, the note: - sets out the context and socio-territorial issues of the energy transition - defines sustainable energies as including renewable energies under conditions of sustainability and energy recovery (RE&R). - studies the links between RE&R and biodiversity through examples such as biomass-wood energy, hydroelectricity, onshore wind energy, photovoltaic energy, marine energy and recovered energy. - discusses possible solutions for a change in energy production methods that are compatible with the protection of biodiversity and the resilience of ecosystems.

Faced with the stakes of sustainable development, the challenges imposed by climate change and the erosion of biodiversity must be taken into consideration coherently. To limit our impact on the climate, we must drastically rethink our relationship with energy and, first and foremost, what is known as carbon-intensive energy. Three complementary and insperable courses of action should allow us to reach such objectives : - firstly, energy sobriety. the best energy being energy which is not used, this challenges our behaviour - next, energy efficiency which stimulates techniques - and lastly, the use of sustainable energy wich we focus in this document This document considers and defines this sustainable energy for current issues. This sustainable energy groups togethers "sustainable" renewable energy and recoverable energy (R&RE). This is an opportunity to combine the issues of climate and biodiversity to help us approach the boundaries of what is possible for a sustainable development energy transition.

Research Cooperation: Knowledge Sharing and Competition. What’s new in the economics of innovation? Theory, empirics and public policy.

Procedural standards are likely to affect the strategies implemented by the parties to a dispute. We study their impact on the volume of litigation and on the amount of expenses incurred by the parties in order to win the case. These two components of the social cost of litigation are at the heart of the challenges that developed countries face in ensuring the effectiveness of substantive law. Our work focuses in particular on the rules of evidence, and we emphasize the opposition between civil law and common law rules.After having defined the contours and the stakes of our subject in the general introduction, we develop a plan in two parts. The first part deals with the behaviour of the parties when they have the possibility of reaching an agreement. Strategic and optimistic models are developed to understand the decisions to go to court and to negotiate. The second part focuses on the process of evidence production that precedes the final hearing. We use rent-seeking models to analyze the incentives of parties to incur expenses.The results suggest that the rules of evidence have a considerable impact on the social cost of litigation. We show that the volume of litigation in France and the United States can be explained by the different rules of evidence that apply in these two countries. Our analysis also reveals that rules of evidence are a major determinant of the private cost of litigation and of defendants' defense strategies.

This work belongs to a research process which has started 10 years ago and whose targets are, on the one hand to show that economic activities ar not only a source of impacts but that they depend first and foremost on biodiversity and ecosystem services, and on the other hand, to co-build approaches which aim at managing these relationships of interdependence, not as a constraint, but as a challenge within the strategy of economic actors.

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This work is part of a research process that is 10 years old and whose objectives are, on the one hand, to show that economic activities are not only a source of impacts but that they are above all largely dependent on biodiversity and ecosystem services and, on the other hand, to co-construct approaches aimed at managing these interdependent relationships, not as a constraint, but as an issue at the heart of the strategy of economic actors.

This work belongs to a research process which has started 10 years ago and whose targets are, on the one hand to show that economic activities ar not only a source of impacts but that they depend first and foremost on biodiversity and ecosystem services, and on the other hand, to co-build approaches which aim at managing these relationships of interdependence, not as a constraint, but as a challenge within the strategy of economic actors.

The protection of natural marine resources is a major issue for public decision makers. The recent development of marine protected areas (MPAs) contributes to these preservation issues. The objectives of MPAs are to conserve marine and coastal ecosystems while promoting human activities. The complexity of these objectives makes them difficult to achieve. The objective of this thesis is to conduct an ex ante analysis of an MPA project in the Kuriat Islands (Tunisia). This analysis represents an aid to decision-makers for a better governance by integrating the involved actors (fisherman, visitor, yachtsman) in the management process. To do this, we apply the contingent valuation method (CVM) to samples of fishermen and visitors to the Kuriat Islands. We are interested in the treatment of selection and sampling biases and uncertainty in the specification of econometric models when implementing CEM. We use the HeckitBMA model,which is a combination of the Heckman (1979) model and Bayesian inference, to calculate fishermen's willingness to receive. We also use the Zero inflated ordered probit (ZIOP) model, which is a combination of a binary probit with an ordered probit, to calculate visitors' willingness to pay after correcting the sample by multiple imputation. Our results show that stakeholder groups differ in their activity and economic status which leads them to have different perceptions. This allows decision makers to develop a compensation policy to compensate the harmed actors.

Numerous pressures are exerted on biodiversity, leading to the fragmentation, destruction or modification of habitats, primarily those resulting from the artificialization of territories. In order to avoid the degradation and destruction of species and natural habitats, the orientation of development operations so that they integrate these issues is therefore crucial. This is reflected in the emergence, in legislation such as the Biodiversity Law in France, of new compensation obligations, possibly "by supply". These regulations aim to increase the social value of projects, in a logic of "public-private" partnerships. In order for this approach to take off, it is essential to understand the economic stakes of biodiversity preservation that underlie these obligations, and then to identify the conditions for the "bio-economic" success of these new instruments, which cannot function effectively without solidly constructed regulations in both dimensions. Beyond that, we must think more generally about the incentives to invest in biodiversity.

The preservation of ecosystems and the economic performance of organizations are often placed in opposition. However, ecosystems and organizations are interdependent and can be understood as part of the same socio-ecological system (SES). Our objective is to identify the instruments that allow the respect of environmental and economic sustainability constraints of the proposed SES: ecological resilience and organizational profitability. After highlighting the environmental weakness of traditional neoclassical regulatory instruments, we assess the effectiveness of two other categories of tools, recent and often popular. The voluntary approaches studied generally guarantee the economic viability of organizations, but their environmental objectives, whose attainment is variable, often ignore the complexity of ecosystems. Among the environmental accounting approaches studied, those based on neoclassical regulatory instruments pursue ecologically inappropriate objectives, whereas heterodox approaches are more in line with our ecological constraints but require a profound reform of accounting conventions. These results lead us to develop a model of environmental management that ensures the sustainability of SES in the shorter term. For its ecological effectiveness, it is based on an adaptive management approach at the territorial level. Competitive disadvantages that may arise are highlighted by appropriate accounting, and these situations are optimized through the implementation of adapted redistributive processes.

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This work is part of a research process that is 10 years old and whose objectives are, on the one hand, to show that economic activities are not only a source of impacts but that they are above all largely dependent on biodiversity and ecosystem services and, on the other hand, to co-construct approaches aimed at managing these interdependent relationships, not as a constraint, but as an issue at the heart of the strategy of economic actors.

Numerous pressures are exerted on biodiversity, leading to the fragmentation, destruction or modification of habitats, primarily those resulting from the artificialization of territories. In order to avoid the degradation and destruction of species and natural habitats, the orientation of development operations so that they integrate these issues is therefore crucial. This is reflected in the emergence in legislation (such as the Biodiversity Law in France) of new compensation obligations, possibly through "supply". These regulations aim to increase the social value of projects, in a logic of "public-private" partnerships. In order for this approach to take off, it is essential to understand the economic stakes of biodiversity preservation that underlie these obligations, and then to identify the conditions for the "bio-economic" success of these new instruments, which cannot function effectively without solidly constructed regulations in both dimensions. Beyond that, we must think more generally about the incentives to invest in biodiversity.

Parallel to the challenge of climate change, the post-COP21 context is characterized, with respect to biodiversity, by the sixth mass extinction of species. What are the nature and scale of the social mutations needed to halt this extinction? If we consider that these changes require the mobilization of all stakeholders concerned, what are the conditions necessary for their success? The foundation of good living is responsibility, inseparably towards nature and humanity. Nature (the environment) cannot be reduced to a service provider that keeps it in subordinate and exploitative relationships that must be changed. Energy is a local issue for decentralized production and consumption, a national issue with regard to the national commitments made at COP 21, a European issue (policies based on Article 194 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union) and a global issue with regard to the challenges and the various global programs. Innovation is essential at the technological and social level, but also in terms of goals, leadership and management of organizations and businesses, because the challenges we face require rapid and massively effective actions.

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What is the market? It is the place where suppliers and buyers meet. In standard economic theory, the ideal model is that of pure and perfect competition. In this model, the firm competes and sells its product at its marginal cost of production, which maximizes social welfare and is therefore the best situation for consumers. But is this the best solution for a developing society? Not sure! This is what we will try to show, on the one hand by studying the relationship between incentives to innovate and markets and, on the other hand, by looking at the links between the evolution of intellectual property rights and the increasing complexity of market access.

For organizations, including businesses, biodiversity management is still too often perceived as a constraint. However, since the work of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment in 2005, there has been a growing awareness that biodiversity is central to development. Several initiatives on the links between biodiversity and organizations have been carried out in France in recent years and have led to the drafting of guides.

As proposed by FAO, the General Assembly of the United Nations declared 2013 as the International Year of Quinoa (IYQ), highlighting the potential role of quinoa's biodiversity in contributing to global food security, given its high nutritional value and tremendous potential to adapt to different agro-climatic conditions. The declaration recognizes the role of the Andean communities in creating this biodiversity and conserving numerous local varieties of quinoa. Four main targets can be identified: recognition of the Andean identity of quinoa's genetic resources and the associated traditional knowledge . conservation of the components of biological diversity and ecosystems . sustainable and effective use of genetic resources in order to encourage innovation . fair and equitable sharing of the benefits derived from the use of these resources and associated traditional knowledge.

The objectives of this document are: 1) - to highlight the close links between climate and biodiversity by developing the feedbacks that govern them. 2) - to draw on feedback from local authorities and companies in various fields of activity, and on contextual elements provided by climate, biodiversity and economic experts. 3) - to propose solutions for mitigating and adapting to climate change that are beneficial for the preservation of biodiversity.

Responses to environmental challenges – climate change and the degradation of biodiversity – do not necessarily require us to call into question the capitalist system, but rather to reform it in order to ensure that the maintenance or indeed the creation of natural capital creates value. For an organisation, the creation of value must now involve an internationally recognised accounting system. In this paper, we shall therefore be proposing potential solutions to be considered for the creation of new accounting rules, e.g. in terms of capital increase or depreciation, which will help to improve the integration of biodiversity issues into the strategies of organisations.

The objectives of this document are: 1) - to highlight the close links between climate and biodiversity by developing the feedbacks that govern them. 2) - to draw on feedback from local authorities and companies in various fields of activity, and on contextual elements provided by climate, biodiversity and economic experts. 3) - to propose solutions for mitigating and adapting to climate change that are beneficial for the preservation of biodiversity.

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Faced with environmental challenges - climate change and biodiversity erosion - it is not necessarily a question of calling the capitalist system into question, but of reforming it so that the maintenance, or even the creation, of natural capital creates value. For an organization, the creation of value today requires an internationally recognized accounting system. In this paper, we propose ways to build new accounting rules, for example in terms of depreciation or capital increase, that allow for a better integration of biodiversity issues in the strategy of organizations.

No summary available.

Reducing pollution and applying the polluter-pays principle more strictly: these are all injunctions from the European Union to France that directly question our water financing system. The polluter-pays principle cannot solve everything. Even if it can be considered to have played a positive role in reducing industrial pollution, the introduction of a tax has had little effect on pollution by plant protection products. The Comité pour la fiscalité écologique proposes to evaluate the effects of new tools such as certificates of savings on plant protection products, or even certificates of savings on agricultural inputs, as well as the implementation of an insurance system to support changes in practices.

We develop a theoretical framework to analyze the choice between secrecy, patent and open access. We consider a firm that can use a basic innovation to develop an application. The basic innovation can also lead another firm to develop a different application. We determine the incentives for the basic innovator to give open access to the basic innovation or to keep it secret. We show that open access emerges more often if the company that owns the basic innovation has the option to protect it by a patent.

No summary available.

This presentation focuses on the development and implementation of intellectual property policy in new technologies and its consequences for society. In particular, the author examines the evolution of the legal system in agricultural biotechnology. This is a complex system that can serve as a "model" for understanding the issues and consequences associated with intellectual property policy. This chapter is divided into three parts: first, the author reviews the theoretical foundations on which strategies for defining and implementing an intellectual property right can be based. Second, he presents the evolution of intellectual property in agricultural biotechnologies. Finally, he presents the future challenges of intellectual property due to the development of new technologies and new constraints.

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Environmental policies, which have developed since the second half of the 20th century, have little to do with biodiversity and ecosystem services, with the exception of the protection of emblematic species (lynx, bear, etc.), the management of fisheries resources and remarkable ecosystems, such as national parks. The approach of economists in this field now emphasizes self-maintenance services and considers that biodiversity management is no longer simply a question of minimizing costs to achieve a certain objective of reducing damage. Humans are part of biodiversity and interact with its different elements, individually (as residents) or collectively, whether through local communities, businesses or administrations. Biodiversity management is therefore the management of these interactions, at different scales of time and space.

Environmental policies, which have developed since the second half of the 20th century, have little to do with biodiversity and ecosystem services, with the exception of the protection of emblematic species (lynx, bear, etc.), the management of fishery resources and remarkable ecosystems, such as national parks. The approach of economists in this field now emphasizes self-maintenance services and considers that biodiversity management is no longer simply a question of minimizing costs to achieve a certain objective of reducing damage. Humans are part of biodiversity and interact with its different elements, individually (as residents) or collectively, whether through local communities, businesses or administrations. Biodiversity management is therefore the management of these interactions, at different scales of time and space.

Adaptation options are currently limited by gaps in our knowledge, a lack of innovation, and a number of economic and institutional barriers. This chapter focuses on "external" adaptation provided by innovators. The creation and dissemination of innovation is often the weak link in the process that goes from the identification of agricultural systems and practices that ensure the adaptation of current modes of production to their appropriation by the actors concerned. Why such a gap? The innovation process is complex; it is a matter of steering research so that the innovation is the most efficient economically, ecologically and socially, both in terms of adoption and acceptability by the various stakeholders.

For decades, there has been commercial exploitation of biodiversity in the form of medicines. These medicines are produced either by directly using the plant or elements of this plant (leaves, roots, etc.), or by synthesizing the active principle. In this context, countries have felt the need to regulate this exploitation so that the wealth does not only benefit the large pharmaceutical laboratories and so that it also benefits the countries from which the resource comes (or the local populations who have identified the healing power of the resource).

This book, which brings together contributions from leading scientists, economists, executives and managers, addresses the following two questions through different approaches: - How can we reconcile economic activities and biodiversity? - Is it possible today to make biodiversity management an asset? Beyond simply raising awareness of biodiversity, this guide sheds light on the issues that need to be considered, on biodiversity management approaches at the scale of a product but also of a territory, as well as on certain prospective advances mentioned within ORÉE (integration of biodiversity in the accounting of organizations, complexity of dynamic interactions between human and living systems). More than fifteen case studies conducted by member and partner organizations were collected in order to concretely illustrate the various ways of reconciling biodiversity issues and those of economic activities in the current context. [Extract from the editor's summary].

In this book, entirely dedicated to Jacques Weber, the author of this chapter describes the creation of a working group on "biodiversity and corporate strategy". This working group was created jointly by the Institut Français de la Biodiversité, then headed by Jacques Weber, and the Orée association, chaired by Sylvie Bernard, of the LVMH group (Moët Hennessy / Louis Vuitton). The objective of this IFB-Orée working group is to make companies and local authorities aware that the issue of biodiversity is not a simple environmental issue, therefore based on impact reductions, and that their productive activities are truly dependent on biodiversity.

No summary available.

In this article, the author analyzes the characteristics of innovations in the field of plant biotechnologies and, in particular, the innovator's capacity to exclude access and to limit or not rivalries in uses. He then briefly recalls the history of agricultural biotechnologies and the status of both the inputs and the results of the research. It then presents the various collective management methods that have been implemented. Finally, it concludes with a prospective analysis of the creation of new common goods in the field of genomic selection.

Abstracts in French and English.

In this thesis, we examine the emergence of a strategic complementarity between agriculture and biodiversity in territories with high environmental value. We study the example of the Camargue, a wetland of international interest, where the challenge is to reconcile agriculture and environmental protection. First, we analyze the Camargue context, emphasizing the ambivalent relationship between agriculture and biodiversity. Insofar as the future reform of the CAP will call into question the conditions of granting of these aids, as much as their global volume, the development of the Camargue rice-growing passes in the long run by its association with an image of wild and natural land. This strategic complementarity may allow future public policies to be designed and justify the maintenance of aid to Camargue rice growing, through its contribution to the sustainable management of biodiversity. We then examine the economic conditions for the emergence of organic rice production in this particular context. The market conditions, and more precisely the presence of imperfect competition, characterized by the concentration of the supply of inputs (herbicides and seeds) in a small number of suppliers. Their adaptation strategies to the development of organic farming practices are constrained by market conditions and limited to the quantities offered. We investigate under which conditions a strategic equilibrium exists, and exclude extreme equilibria (dominant/excluded organic rice). Our results place varietal supply strategies at the heart of these strategic interactions, which is why we extend this strategic approach by studying the economic determinants of varietal diversity in Camargue rice farms. This confirms the importance of niche strategies, and highlights the role of market opportunities and networks in farmers' choice of cultivar portfolio, beyond the structural constraints of the farm. Finally, a "choice experiments" type of survey reveals the influence of collective norms in the preferences of Camargue rice farmers for the production technologies at their disposal. The results of this empirical study show that a large majority of producers could adopt technologies without chemical inputs, provided that they are accompanied by financial compensation equivalent to that currently granted unconditionally under the CAP. Beyond the case study, the thesis provides useful lessons for the design of public policies capable of reconciling economic efficiency and sustainable development. It is also a contribution to the reflection on the integrated multi-actor management of agriculture and biodiversity on the scale of a territory with high environmental value.

This thesis analyzes the economic consequences of the erosion of biodiversity and more particularly of plant genetic resources. The observed erosion justifies the setting up of in-situ or ex-situ conservatories (seed banks). Our attention was focused on this second type of conservation which is the preferred mode to conserve gvr. The objective of this work is to define a conservation organization that is compatible with the maximization of collective utility. To answer these questions, we have organized this work into three parts: 1. We present an introduction to the current organization of conservation. The triplet cost benefit risk of the different techniques appears crucial in the decision making, thus imposing an approach in terms of choice in an uncertain future. 2. This leads us to deepen the "option value" models developed by C. Henry in 1974 and to propose a more general model. Thus, it is proven that the concept of irreversibility traditionally used rarely corresponds to the real environment of the decision maker and can lead to a non-rational decision. 3. These different results led us to build a sequential decision model applied to the conservation of rgv. By simulations, we have defined the intervals favorable to conservation and the sensitivity of the model to the parameters.